da Majd Al-Aarg mancano 3 anni
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Into bloodstream
Remitted into cell
Forms 32 ATP
Releases energy
Breaks glucose down
Needed in Krebs
Fuels further steps
3-Carbon molecule
Fuels circulatory system
Fuels musculoskeletal system
Fuels nervous system
Fuels respiratory system
Fuels digestive system
Last phosphate broken
Forms ADP
Adenosine diphosphate
Ribose + 2 Phosphate groups
Transports nutrients + oxygen
Aerobic respiration occurs
Cells → mitochondria
Capillaries → cells
Arteries → destination capillaries
Capillaries → arteries
Villi → capillaries
Small intestine → villi
Circulatory system
All major lines are filled in and thick. Connections between systems are 1px thick, blue and dashed. Follow the thick, colored lines for each system.
Spine reconstruction
Spine stabilization
Brain stimulation procedure
Determine treatment plans
Consult other specialists
Coordinate with physicians
Prescribe medications
Diagnose developmental conditions
Autism
ADHD
Specialized operations
Diagnose diseases + conditions
Experimental diagnosting testing
Evaluate medical history
Imaging technology
Look for markers
Detect abnormalities
Check CT scans
Perform EEG
Detect electrical activity
Monitor impulse control
Electroencephalography
MAO B inhibitors
Inhibit brain enzymes
Stops demyelination
Prevent dopamine loss
Carbidopa-levodopa
Restores dopamine
Natural chemical production
Synthesizes dopamine
Minimizes further loss
Deep brain stimulation
Restore motor function
Conduct impulses to brain
Dopamine transporter scan
Check dopamine inhibition
Nerve tissue X-Ray
Check for biomarkers
Neurology exam
Check stimuli response
Test motor functions
Check for tremors
No definite testing
Slowed movement
Reduced motor function
Rigid muscles
Decreased impulse control
Tremors
Caused by dopamine loss
Lack of motor control
Chemical messengers gone
Neurotransmitter loss
Axon terminal degeneration
Inhibits neurotransmitter production
Loss of norepinephrine
Nerve cell death
Loss of chemical messengers
Decreased dopamine levels
Lead in water/air
Herbicides destroy neurons
Chemical exposure
Medication
Glatiramer acetate
Inhibit white blood cells
Prevent further damage
Prevent exacerbations
Slow down progression
Rehabilitation
Manage leg weakness
Strengthening exercises
Restore some function
No cure exists
Evoked potential test
Detect slowed response
Monitor electrical activity
Emits impulses
Check synapse firings
Check stimulation response
MRI
Look for demyelination
Detect tissue damage
Magnetic resonance imaging
Spinal tap
Detect autoimmune response
Irregular antibodies = MS
Check antibodies abnormalities
Sample cerebrospinal fluid
Symptoms/Effects
Permanent nerve damage
Partial vision loss
Damaged ocular nerves
Limb numbness
Exposed nerve fiber
Damage to axons
Lack of sensory
Lack of body coordination
Reduced impulse control
Motor function loss
Reduced electrical transmission
Demyelination of axons
Lack of accuracy
Slower impulse transmission
Thymus kills myelin
Lymphocyte T-Cells
Killer WBC
Cytokines target Schwans
Permanent myelin loss
Destroys oligodendrocytes
Autoimmune disease
Deems it a threat
Antibodies mark lipoproteins
Immune system targets myelin
Myelin coating damaged
Slow impulse transmission
Nerve fiber exposed
Demyelinating disease
Scarred myelin sheath
Lack of lipoproteins
Loss of myelin
Nervous Tissue
Bundles of Neurons
Neurons
Glia
Schwann Cells
Support axons
Attached to cell body
Insulates axons
Forms myelin sheath
Synthesizes lipoprotein
Astrocytes
Sense neurotransmitter levels
Metabolic support
Regulate potassium
Control neurotransmitters
Maintain homeostasis
Synapses
Extracellular impulse transmission
Pass messages on
Coordinates mass movements
Cell communication point
Junction of the axon and dendrite
Axon terminals
Release neurotransmitters
Perform specific functions
Epinephrine (C₉H₁₃NO₃)
Regulate blood flow
Stimulate sensory
From adrenal glands
Regulates respiration
Serotonin (5-HT)
Adjusts sleep cycle
Regulate digestion
Acetylcholine (ACh)
Regulate bodily secretions
Increase blood flow
Dilates blood vessels
Synthesized from glucose
Trigger muscle contractions
Dopamine (C₈H₁₁NO₂)
Produced by amino acids
Released into synapse
Chemically induced motivation
Brain’s reward system
Pleasure neurohormone
Generate body responses
Impulses release molecules
Transmit signals
Chemical messengers
Cell body
Coordinates body response
React to stimuli
Receives dendrite signals
Regulate cell function
Contains nucleus+organelles
Largest part
Called “Soma”
Dendrites
Communicates with cell body
Detects external surroundings
Provides sensory input
Receive synaptic inputs
Branch-like structures
Myelin Sheath
Speeds up transmission
Quicker reflexes
Facilitates impulse accuracy
Myelin fat (lipoprotein)
Protective lipid layer
Insulates the axons
Axon
Relay neuronal information
Action potential projections
Transmit electrical impulses
Long slender fiber
Relay electrical signals
Regulates involuntary functions
Sends motor impulses
Heart beat, breathing etc
Provide sensory information
Communicate with (CNS)
Connect CNS to organs
Coordinate all body activity
Spinal Cord
Responsible for movement + sensation
Bundles of axons
Conduct electrical impulses
Conduct two-way signals
Two-way information relay
Organs ⇌ Brain
Coordinate muscle reflexes
Brain
Thalamus
Attention, alertness, memory
Transmits to lobes
Coordinates electrical impulses
Relays signals
Manages sensory input
Control center of brain
Hypothalamus
Behaviour control
Hormone regulation
Thirst, sleep, hunger
Controls pituitary gland
Connects endocrine glands
Nervous + endocrine systems
Pituitary gland
Regulates hormonal flow
Connected to hypothalamus
Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
Maintains water balance
Regulate blood pressure
Growth hormone
Behind nose bridge
Master gland
Brain stem
Medulla oblongata
Controls reflexes
Regurgitating
Coughing
Sneezing
Regulate involuntary processes
Blood flow
Heart rhythm
Midbrain
Audio processing
Controls visual sensory
Has neural pathways
Process sensory input
Contains neuron clusters
Pons
Connects midbrain + medulla
Controls voluntary processes
Balance
Facial expressions
Chewing
Vision
Contains 12 cranial nerves
Relay signals
Cerebellum
Balance and posture
Cognitive functions
Emotional processing
Speech acquisition
Coordinate voluntary movement
Controls autonomic system
Involuntary muscle contractions
Blood pressure
Heart rate
Two hemispheres
Cerebrum
Occipital lobes
Processes visual information
Visual perception
Visual sensory
Contains visual cortex
Temporal lobes
Language recognition
Manage emotional response
Memory storage
Recognize faces + objects
Process sounds
Contains auditory cortex
Side of brain
Parietal lobes
Language processing
Manage sensory input
Pain
Touch
Temperature
Somatosensory cortex
Spatial perception
Sensory processing
Separated by central sulcus
Behind frontal lobe
Frontal lobes
Memory
Personality regulation
Problem solving
Reasoning
Relies on dopamine
Emotional response + behaviour
Speech: speaking + writing
Broca’s area
Motor cortices
Motor control
Functions + Overview
Encased in membranes
Meninges surround brain
Contained in cerebrospinal fluid
Information processing
Decision making
Integrated global calculation
Complex cognitive functions
Processes sensory information
Receives electrical impulses
Controls perceptions
Hormone signalling
Thinking + feeling
Controls movement + coordination
Motor Output
Controls subconscious activity
Controls voluntary actions
Diagnose and detect diseases
Open-heart surgery
Biopsies
Blood vessel surgeries
Reroute arteries
Overcome blockages
Fix blood flow
Coronary artery bypass
Insert medical devices
Insert impulse devices
Control heart rhythm
Pacemaker insertion
Perform heart operations
Catheter insertion
Fix blockages
Balloon vessel expansion
Heart valve repair
Suggest lifestyle changes
Medical device care
Dietary education
Specialized in rhythm regulation
Catheter Ablations
Treat atrial fibrillation
Fix quivering heartbeat
Pacemaker operations
Non-invasive procedures
AFib surgery
Diagnostic testing
Catheter exploration
Heart imaging
Treat heart arrhythmia
Septal myectomy
Prevent mitral regurgitation
Minimizes valve failure
Opens ventricle flow
Remove muscle wall
ACE inhibitor
Minimizes fluid buildup
Improves blood flow
Lowers blood pressure
Heart medication
Pacemaker surgery
Install a pacemaker
Regulate blood pump
Strengthen heart muscles
Help muscle contractions
Check iron concentrations
Treadmill stress test
Determine stress limit
Detect irregular heartbeat
Electrocardiogram
Check cardiac impulses
Monitor heart activity
Check for heart enlargement
Brain lacks oxygen
Chest discomfort
Irregular heartbeat
Abdomen bloating
Can’t regulate fluids
Fluid build up
Breathlessness
Abnormal protein buildup
Cardiac muscle stiffens
Iron buildup
Irregular chemical levels
High blood pressure
Heart stiffening
Lifestyle changes
Exercise
Relieves cramps
Increases oxygenation
Avoiding cholesterol
Prevents further buildup
Diet Change
Minimize blockages
Angioplasty
Prevents narrowing
Expands artery permanently
Catheter inserted into artery
Balloon expands passageway
Insert mesh stent
Releases plaque buildup
Restores blood flow
Angiography
Detects blockages
Monitors blood flow
Contrast agent is injected
Specialized X-Ray
Blood tests
Check for risk factors
C-reactive protein
Homocysteine
Cholesterol
Lipid profile
Measure triglycerides
Ankle-brachial index
Check for blood flow
Blood pressure (BP) check
Monitor differences
Ankle BP vs. arm BP
Critical limb ischemia
Occurs in lower extremities
Already poor circulation
Last to receive oxygen
Hands, legs, toes
Tissue death
Dead body cells
Causes nerve damage
Lack of nutrients
Erectile dysfunction
Decreased blood flow
Discoloration of extremities
Numbness in limbs
Insufficient blood supply
Muscle cramping
Vascular trauma
Injury to arteries
Blunt-force damage
Blood vessel inflammation
Triggered by infections
Hepatitis C
Hepatitis B
Autoimmune disorders (scleroderma)
Caused by external irritants
Lack of blood flow
Cellular waste buildup
Plaque buildup
Fat deposits
Blocks arterial passages
Limits blood flow
Deposits of cholesterol
Narrowed arteries
Circulatory problem
Blood Cells
Plasma
Absorbs + release heat
Enhances exercise
Transports waste
Transports blood
Protein-rich fluid
Platelets (thrombocytes)
Stop bleeding out
Condense and stick together
Close wounds
Clot blood
Leukocytes (WBC)
Granulocytes
Neutrophils
Common phagocyte
Ingest foreign particles
Detect & kill bacteria
Found in bloodstream
Eosinophils
Destroy tumour cells
Repair damaged tissue
Kill parasites
Contain toxic proteins
Basophils
Attack fungi
Lymphocytes
B-Cells
Anti-inflammatory
Adaptive immune response
Remember antigens
Build immunity
T-Cells
Killer T-Cells
Destroy antigens
Cytotoxic
Store antigen information
Synthesize cytokines
Kill cancer cells
Detect cancer cells
Communicate with macrophages
Detect foreign molecules
Respond to antigens
Carry unique receptors
Recognize threats
Initiate immune response
Latch onto particles
Monocytes
Degrade bacteria
Remove dead cells
Differentiate into macrophages
Longer lifespan
Produced in bone marrow
Produce macrophages
Invade pathogens
Ingest viruses
Destroy bacteria
Engulf foreign particles
Executes immune response
Involved in phagocytosis
Ingests microbes
Engulfs particles
Responds to antibodies
B-Cells release antibodies
Reduce tissue inflammation
Fight infection
Engulf bacteria
Produce antibodies
Blood vessels
Capillaries
Transports hormones
Carried through blood stream
Diffused through capillaries
Secreted from endocrine system
Regulates chemical concentrations
Carry carbon dioxide
Takes CO2 from body
Transports through blood stream
Taken to lungs
Capillaries → alveoli
Exhaled and eliminated
Diffusion from Small intestine
Increased ATP production
More energy available
Link bloodstream to body
Transports nutrients
Cells require nutrients
Needed for cellular respiration
Small intestine → capillaries
Capillaries → blood stream
Blood stream → tissues
Transports oxygen
Arteries → Capillaries → Cells
Cells require oxygen
Needed for cellular respiration - connect to cellular respiration
Small, narrocw
1-cell thick
Allows nutrient transport
Veins
Oxygen poor
Returns blood + CO2
Large vessels
Arteries
Oxygen rich
Carry oxygenated blood
Away from the heart
Muscular
Withstand pressure
Heart
Epithelial tissue covering
Smooth surface
Protects the heat
Prevents friction
Lines heart chambers
Four chambers
Valves
Prevent backflow
Separate chambers
Regulate flow
Left ventricle
Push to aorta
Final chamber
Thickest walls
Left atrium
Receives oxygenated blood
Right Ventricle
Thick walls
Right atrium
Receives oxygen-poor blood
Thinner walls
Pumps blood
Blood enters heart
Deoxygenated blood
Through vena cava
Enters right atrium
Through tricuspid valve
Enters right ventricle
Pumps blood to lungs
Through pulmonary valve
Enters pulmonary artery
Blood enters lungs
Gets oxygenated
Returns through pulmonary veins
Enters left atrium
Through mitral valve
Enters left ventricle
Through aortic valve
Exits through aorta
Carries oxygenated blood
Returned in bloodstream
Receive O2
Eliminate CO2
Gap junctions
Connect muscle cells
Cohesive contraction
Carry electrical impulse
Branched and striated
Pump blood
Involuntary
Supplied by coronary arteries
Gives necessary glucose
Fuels muscle contractions
Turned into ATP
Heart’s oxygen supply
Erythrocytes (Red Blood Cells)
Dilutes lactic acid
Lactic acid reduces oxygen
Blood restores balance
Transported by RBC
Exercise produces lactic acid
Byproduct of cellular respiration
Regulates temperature
Removes carbon dioxide
Carry hemoglobin
Facilitates gas diffusion
Dark red = deoxygenated
Bright red = oxygenated
Hgb protein
Carries 98% of O₂
Non-nucleated
Carry more oxygen
Treat respiratory diseases
Tracheal resection
Esophageal cancer
Chest/Respiratory operations
Lung volume reduction surgery
Lung transplants
Tracheostomy
Open up airways
Specialized in chest organs
Heart, Lungs, Trachea
Perform operations
Pulmonary biopsies
Airway ablation
Open up airway
Conduct diagnostic tests
Bronchoscopy
Spirometries
Diagnose conditions
Eg. Cystic fibrosis
Treat pulmonary organs
Pharynx
Bronchial tubes
Respiratory system specialist
Anti-inflammatories
Reduce airway swelling
Sinus surgery
Free fluid blockages
Remove polyps
Mucolytics
Frees up bronchi
Loosens mucus
Mucus-thinning drugs
Goal
Prevent intestinal blockage
Loosen mucus
Prevent infections
Chest X-Ray
Detect lung blockages
Determine lung swelling
Septum test
Monitor antibodies
Detect abnormal germs
Mucus samples
Sweat chloride test
Triggered by electrical current
High sodium = diseased
Detect high sodium levels
Inflamed nasal passages
Sinusitis
Stuffy nose
Sinus infections
Blocked airway
Repeated lung infections
Gradually destroys tissue
Pneumonia or bronchitis
Persistent cough
Full of mucus
Family history
Runs in families
Increased sodium saturation
Inhibits diffusive processes
Mucus buildup
Abnormally thickened mucus
CFTR gene
Stopping smoking
Prevent further irritants
Minimize progression
Oxygen therapy
Treat low blood oxygen
Supplement oxygen
Portable oxygen can
Bronchodilators
Facilitate breathing
Relax bronchi
Release airway muscles
Type of medication
Arterial gas test
Detect high CO₂
Monitor CO₂ blood levels
Pulse oximetry
Measure oxygen saturation
Pulmonary function test
Detect any damage
Monitor lung function
Measure lung capacity
CT Scan
Screen for cancer
Check for abnormalities
Detect lung scarring
Noninvasive imaging
Blue lips
Oxygen deficiency
Shortness of breath
Chronic cough
Excess mucus
Obstructed pathway
Wheezing
Dizziness
Lack of oxygen
Pulmonary bullae
Inhibits diffusion
Poorly defined membranes
Fusion of alveoli
Loss of alveoli elasticity
Impaired gas exchange
Alpha-1-antitrypsin deficiency
Lung protective protein
Chemical irritants
Scars lung tissue
Smoking
Breathing
Gas exchange
Air enters conducting zone
Passes pharynx + trachea
Air enters respiratory zone
O₂ carried through bronchioles
Air passages get narrower
Enters alveolar ducts
Occurs in alveoli
Capillaries surround alveoli
CO₂ diffuses out of blood
Exhaled
Remove excess CO₂
System detects high CO₂
O₂ diffuses into blood
Oxygen unloading
Hb₄O₄ > Hb₄O₄ > Hb₄O₂ > Hb₄
Carries oxygen to body
Oxyhemoglobin binding
Loads oxygen
Hb + 4O₂ = HbO₈
Hemoglobin receives O₂
Carry max 4 O₂
Undergoes conformational change
Turns bright red
4 polypeptide chains
High oxygen affinity
Binds 99% of O₂
Through membrane layers
Passes epithelial cells
Fused basal lamina
Through endothelial cells
Enters capillaries
1-Cell thick
Facilitates blood flow
Enter pulmonary artery
Into lung capillaries
Oxygenated
Exits pulmonary vein
Thin membrane lining
Air fills up sacks
Allow for diffusion
Warms incoming air
Cilia traps pathogens
Occurs through diffusion
Exhalation
Air exits lungs
Diaphragm relaxation
Volume reduction
Air pressure increases
Forces air out
Release CO₂
Inhalation
Air into lungs
Diaphragm contracts
Increase chest volume
Creates partial vacuum
Air rushes, equalize pressure
Uses partial pressure
Lungs
Diaphragm
Relaxes
Creates high pressure
Chest cavity gets smaller
Increases lung pressure
Carbon dioxide forced out
Contracts
Expands chest cavity
Creates low pressure
Brings air in
Thin muscle set
Separates thorax + abdomen
Alveoli
Alveolar capillary membrane
Thin-walled
Diffuse oxygen → capillaries
Hold oxygen
150 million alveoli per lung
Specialized cell lining
Type 2 Pneumocytes
Lubricates surface
Coats inner alveoli
Secrete fluid
Type 1 Pneumocytes
Lined with mucus
Designed for diffusion
Thin walled
Facilitate gas exchange
End of bronchioles
Sac-like structures
Alveolar ducts
Opens into alveoli cluster
Branch into alveoli
Smooth muscle tube
Bronchioles
Goblet cells secrete mucus
Gets coughed up
Catches small particles
Connected to alveolar duct
Bronchial tree
Smaller oxygen branches
Structure in the lungs
Bronchi
Ciliated epithelium
Major air passage
Two bronchi (bronchus)
Splits into both lungs
Attached to trachea
Supported by cartilage
No muscle tissue
"Powered" by diaphragm
Exchange of gases
Provide blood with oxygen
Remove CO₂ waste
Trachea
Leads into lungs
Splits into 2 bronchi
Rigid vacuum hose
Blocked by epiglottis
Windpipe
Supported by rings
Larynx
Epiglottis
Cricoid cartilage
Thyroid cartilage
Contains vocal cords
Regulates air volume
Pharynx (throat)
Covered with ciliated epithelium
Destroys incoming pathogens
Has hairlike appendages
Lymphoid tissue structures
Houses the tonsils
Air passageway
Connected to nasal cavity
Formed by skeletal muscle
Nose
Respiratory epithelium lining
Contains hair
Filters out debris
Columnar epithelial cells
Prevent air dehydration
Warms incoming hair
Moisturizes air
Has conchae projections
Brushes air on epithelium
Bounce air around
Made of cartilage
Primary air intake
Mouth
Oral Mucosa
Secondary airway intake
Oncologic orthopaedics
Treat bone cancers
Orthopaedic trauma
Install screws, plates etc
Treat critical injuries
Perform common operations
Lumbar spinal fusions
Hip replacements
Knee arthroscopy
Musculoskeletal treatment
Restore movement capabilities
Electrotherapy
Conducts exercise
Provides rehabilitation
Muscle stimulation devices
Massage muscles
Develop treatment plans
Retrains muscles
Manual exercise therapy
Treat injuries + conditions
Pelvic issues
Arthritis
Pinpoint injury causes
Treatments
Immune Cell Engineering
Target cancerous cells
Infuse modified T-cells
CAR-T cell therapy
Produce cancer fighting cells
Modify immune cells
Bone marrow transplant
New blood produces
Get healthy donor cells
Use stem cells
Replace diseased tissue
Radiation therapy
Ionizing radiation
Inhibit further growth
Damage leukemia cells
Chemotherapy
Kill leukemia cells
Target cancer cells
Physical exam
Enlarged liver signs
Check lymph nodes
Bone marrow test
Detect cancerous cells
Needle punctures hip
Extract bone marrow
Recurrent bleeding
Poor blood clotting
Excessive perspiration
Severe infections
Uncontrolled immune system
Bone tenderness
Weakness + fatigue
Abnormal cells produced
Inhibits healthy cells
Excessive white blood cells
Uncontrollable blood production
Diseased bone marrow
Diseased blood-forming tissues
Genetic disorders
Genetic mutations
Down syndrome
Bone marrow cancer
Environmental factors
Radiation exposure
Blood cell mutation
Damage bone marrow
Intravenous calcium injections
Intestinal surgery
Repair small intestine
Supplements
Calcium + vitamin D
X-Ray
Detect bone cracks
Check for fractures
Urinalysis
Check phosphorus levels
Detect low vitamin-D
Blood samples
Monitor protein levels
Measure calcium levels
Muscle weakness
Irregular heart rhythm
Calcium needed for circulation
Poor blood flow
Numbness in extremities
Caused by low calcium
Aching pains
Weak appendicular skeleton
Lower back
Easily fractured bones
Brittle bones
Reduced bone density
Prevent calcium absorption
Reduce calcium levels
Damaged small intestine
Vitamin D deficiency
Kidney disorders
Inhibits calcium absorption
Calcium intolerance
Leads to malabsorption
Reduced calcium intake
Cardiac muscle
Cardiomyocytes muscle cells
Connected by gap junctions
Simultaneous heart contractions
Transfer electrical stimulation
Contract + pump blood
Short, branched, striated
Involuntary control
Found only in heart
Facilitates blood pump
Smooth muscle
No striations
Fuel contractions
Release ATP energy
Released by impulses
Activated by calcium ions
Contain actin + myosin
Facilitate tubular movement
Blood vessel contractions
Move substances in body
In hollow organs
Stomach + intestines
Triggered via hormones
Involuntary movement
Skeletal muscle
Receive electrical impulses
Conducted by motor neurons
Impulse prompts contraction
Covered in epimysium
Gives muscles elasticity
Protects muscles
Contain striations
Contract + expand
Actin + myosin filaments
Dark stripes
Muscle fiber bundles
Facilitates voluntary movements
Muscle contractions
Fibers receive signals
Contracts muscles
Shorten sarcomeres
Pulls actin filaments
ATP -> Mechanical energy
Stimulates myosin filaments
Actin + myosin proteins
Use contractile proteins
Work in antagonistic pairs
One contracts, other relaxes
Biceps + triceps
Facilitate movement
Responsible for circulation
Maintain posture
Resist gravity
Muscle contract + relax
Controlled by AcH
Binds to receptors
Open sarcolemma channels
Calcium ion releases
Enter sarcoplasm
Binds myosin + actin
Sodium ion released
Generate mechanical force
Responsible for movement
Necessary for exercise
Axial Skeleton
Connective tissue
Tendons
Withstand mechanical stress
Dense collagen fibres
Transmit mechanical force
Attached at periosteum
Bind muscle + bone
Cartilage
Reduces friction
Stabilizes joints
Facilitates smooth movement
Enhanced sports performance
Prevents joint degradation
Absorbs shock
Gel-like padding
Semi-rigid tissue
Ligaments
Provides joint stability
Allow joint movement
Fibres of collagen
At the joint
Point where bones meet
Bone to bone
Hold bones together
Supports movement
Elastic structure
Strips of connective tissue
Bones
Spongy (Cancellous) Bone
Houses bone marrow
Lightens bones
Facilitates activity
Reduces bone density
Distributes weight stress
Provide body balance
Storage of calcium
Aid in contractions
Regulate heart rate
Mineralize bones
Facilitates hematopoiesis
Forms two progenitors
Lymphoid stem cells
T-Cells + B-Cells
Forms lymphocytes
Myeloid stem cells
Red blood cells
Produces platelets
Nutrient transport
Necessary for oxygen
Stimulated by erythropoietin
Forms erythrocytes
Hemocytoblasts differentiate
Precursor cells
Hematopoietic stem cells
Anatomy
Osteons
Blood vessels pass through
Cylindrical passageways
Medullary cavities
Contain bone marrow
Inner pockets
Periosteum
Compact outer shell
Epiphysis
Red bone marrow
Spongy bone
Diaphysis
Store bone marrow
Hollow shaft
Functions + Characteristics
Hydroxyapatite (Ca₅(PO₄)₃)
Hold phosphate
Stores calcium
Mineralized structures
Hold collagen fibers
Provide structural support
Made of protein fibres
Hard, dense tissue
Osseous tissue
Vertebral column (spine)
Electrical impulse highway
Minimizes spinal injuries
Supports head
Encases spinal cord
24 vertebrae
Thoracic rib cage
Protects heart + lungs
Supported by clavicles
12 rib pairs
The skull
Determines facial structure
Prevents brain injury
Outer protective layer
Minimizes brain damage
Enhance playing safety
Protects the brain
Key Functions
Energy storage
Adipose fat
Store + release minerals
Stored in hydroxyapatite
Prevents brittle bones
Combined with collagen
Blood cell production
Bone marrow
Hematopoiesis
Facilitates movement
Provides body framework
Provides structural support
Supports body shape
Protects internal organs
H-2-receptor blockers
Inhibits HCl production
Acid reduction
Long-term relief
Proton pump inhibitors
Includes Dexilant + Aciphex
Reduces acid production
Prevent acid-making proteins
Antacids
Alters calcium metabolism
Causes kidney problems
Neutralize acid
Provide quick relief
X-ray Imaging
Frames digestive tract
Outlines tract damage
Drink ink/chalk
Acid probe test
Detects acid spikes
Attached to monitor
Monitors pH levels
Probe inserted in nostril
Upper endoscopy
Intravenous sedative (in your vein)
Reduces pain/sensation
Relaxes muscle
Camera attached to tube
Captures video
Thin, flexible tube
Looks at digestive tract
Magnifies epithelial lining
Symptoms/Complications
Less efficient ingestion
Vomiting (regurgitation)
Increased choking risk
Scar tissue narrows esophagus
Esophageal stricture
Chest pain
Increased pH
Laryngitis
Scarred throat tissue
Damaged vocal cords
Inflammation of larynx
Difficulty swallowing
Heartburn
Caused by acid backwash
Burning sensation
Connective tissue disorders
Scleroderma
Frequent acid reflux
Inflamed lining
Weakened esophageal sphincter
Acid backwash
Stomach's contents flow up
Sphincter isn’t efficient
Stomach doesn’t close
Treatment
Corticosteroids
Azathioprine + Budesonide
Controls intestine inflammation
Reduce immune system activity
Vitamin + Mineral supplements
Folate, Iron, Zinc
Solves nutritional deficiency
Balances body vitamins
Gluten free diet
Reduce needs of villi
Diagnosis
Check villi damage
Genetic testing
Checks for leukocyte antigens
Serology test
Looks for autoimmune response
Checking for antibodies
Symptoms
Osteoporosis
Bone degeneration
Bone density loss
Dermatitis herpetiformis
Blistering skin rash
Intestine lining mutation
Changes in epithelial cells
Malnutrition
Anemia
Weakness
Dizziness + fatigue
Caused by iron deficiency
Causes
Reduced absorption of nutrients
Vitamin deficiency
Mineral deficiency
Villous atrophy
Degrades villi layer
Immune system attacks villi
Overconsumption of gluten
Cancer screening procedure
GI tissue biopsy
Endoscopy
Observe digestive tract
Tube with camera
Manages disorders
Treats pancreatitis
Prescribe medication
Perform stool tests
Patient consultations
Analyzes test results
Conducts biopsies
Reviews bloodwork
Does not operate
Determines operations necessary
Diagnose liver disease
Fatty liver disease
Detected through biopsy
Subspecialty of gastroenterology
Conduct exploratory procedures
Colonoscopies
Inserted through rectum
Detect colon abnormalities
Examine large bowel
Perform routine operations
Esophageal cancer surgery
Tumor removal
Reroute esophagus
Remove part of esophagus
Treats gastrointestinal diseases
Colon polyps
Crohn’s Disease
GERD
Chyme enters rectum
Stores + compacts waste
Excretes waste
Through anus
Voluntary control
Jejunum & Ileum
Metabolic process energy sources
Broken down into glucose
Primary energy source
Monomer amino acids
Used in Krebs Cycle
Oxidized during glycolysis
Forms acetyl-CoA
Turned into ATP energy
Enhances athletic performance
Fuels all cellular processes
Fuels body movement
Synthesizes neurotransmitters
Facilitate hormone synthesis
Enhance athletic performance
Muscle strength
Muscle tissue repair
Lymphatic vessels to cells
Transport simplified lipids
Fatty acids
Monoglycerides
Capillary action
Transports nutrients to bloodstream
Amino acids
Monomer proteins
Monosaccharide
Simplified carbohydrates
More nutrients to metabolize
More calories available
Increased energy
Improves athletic performance
Nutrients carried to body cells
Takes nutrients from villi
Connect to capillaries
Extend into intestinal lumen
Microprojections
Lined with columnar epithelium
Contains villi projections
Facilitates diffusion
Through protein channels
Molecules → cell membrane
Cell membrane → Capillaries
Capillaries → Bloodstream
Linked to lymphatic vessels
Vascularity
Nutrients transported to capillaries
Contain capillaries
Increases chyme surface area
Takes in monomers
Absorbs incoming nutrients
Forms selective barrier
Absorbs monomers
Regulates nutrient absorption
Secretes mucus
Protects jejunum during movement
Lubricates passageway
Pancreas (accessory organs)
Lipase
Fatty acids and glycerol
Breaks down lipids
Trypsin
Makes amino acids
Protein catalysts
Amylase (C₉H₁₄N₄O₃)
C₆H₁₀O₅ + H₂O -> C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁
Forms disaccharide glucose
Starch + water -> maltose
Improves metabolic processes
Releases sodium bicarbonate
NaCl + H₂CO₃ -> NaCl + H₂O + CO₂
Releases carbon dioxide
Decomposition releases water
HCl + NaHCO3 -> NaCl + H2CO3
Neutralize hydrochloric acid
Regulates stomach acid
Controls blood sugar
Enhance sports perforance
Produces insulin
Liver (accessory organs)
Facilitates absorption
Neutralize stomach acids
Basic pH
Dissolves fat/lipids
CH₃(CH₂)nCOOH
Secretes bile
Small intestine
Duodenum
Mechanical Digestion
Facilitates movement of chyme
Simplifies biomolecules
Converts polymers to monomers
Simple sugars (C₆H₁₂O₆)
Fatty acids (R-COOH)
Amino acids (R-CH(NH₂)-COOH)
Signals pancreas
Receives digestive enzymes
40 cm long
Narrow passageway
Breaking down biomolecules
Stomach
Produces chyme
Expelled through the sphincter
Contains partially digest food
Acidic fluid
Smooth muscles
Contractions churn food
Submerges food in gastric juices
Breaks down food mechanically
Lined with glandular epithelium
Mucosal defence mechanisms
Subepithelial tissue
Supplying nutrients and oxygen
Eliminates hydrogen ions
Pre-epithelial tissue
Produces electrolytes (HCO₃-)
Mucus and bicarbonate barrier
Maintains pH balance
Neutralize acids
Rapid cell turn-over
Constantly regenerating
Epithelium secretes mucus
Mucus protects stomach from burning
Forms protective lining
Parietal cells (accessory organs)
Activates pepsin
Kills bacteria
Hydrochloric Acid
Produces acids
Produces digestive enzymes
Pepsin
Simplifies amino acids
Breaks down proteins
Forms smaller peptides
Endopeptidase breaks peptide bonds
Gastric chief cells (accessory organs)
Produces pepsinogen
Converted to pepsin by HCl
Inactive zymogen
Epithelial cells in gastrointestinal tract
Esophageal sphincter
Opens up to allow bolus in
Prevents acids from travelling upwards
Regulates constriction of path
Separates Esophagus from stomach
Esophagus
Muscular tube lined with epithelium
Goblet cells
Protect cell wall
Allow smooth passage of food
Secrete mucus
Stratified
Epithelial Tissue Protects Esophagus
Cuboidal epithelium epithelium
Protects mechanical abrasions
Prevents harmful bacteria
Appendages traps foreign particles
Secretes enzymes
Smooth and low friction
Peristalsis
Pushes bolus down
Food moves through the esophagus
Smooth muscle tissue contractions
Involuntary movements
Wavy movements of muscles
Bolus travels down the esophagus
Located near trachea (windpipe)
Protects the trachea
Prevents food from entering windpipe
Flap of tissue
Gasses only
Epiglottis blocks trachea
Mouth/pharynx
Start digestive process
Mechanical Digestion: breaks down food
Tongue
Is a muscle
Pushes food around
Part of musculoskeletal system
Teeth
Tear + crush food
Chemical digestion
Salivary glands
Lingual lipase
Forms fatty acids + glycerides (C₁₆H₃₂O₄)
Break down triglycerides (C₆H₈O₆)
Salivary amylase (C₉H₁₄N₄O₃)
Lubricates passage through esophagus
Softens food
Catalyst of hydrolysis
Breaks down carbohydrates
Forms glucose
pH Buffers
Fights bacteria
Prevent tooth decay
Counteract acidity
Glands
Sublingual glands
Underneath tongue
Submandibular glands
Underneath jawbone
Parotid glands
Sides of face
Produces saliva enzymes
Formation of bolus
Travels down esophagus
Ball of softened food
Enzymes break down food
Biomolecules begin degradation
Nucleic acid
Needed for growth
DNA + RNA
Protein (RCH(NH2)COOH)
Form enzymes
Supports muscles
Bonded with peptide
Amino acid chain
Lipids (CH3(CH2)nCOOH)
Nutrient absorption
Fatty acid chains
Enhance sports performance
Stores energy
Carbohydrates (Cₓ(H2O)ᵧ)
Monosaccharide - (CH2O)x
Used in cellular respiration
Essential for exercise
Basic carbohydrates
Simple sugars
Takes in food
Alimentary pathway
