Concept Map 1 - Group 28

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Activated GPCR then binds to G protein, which binds to GTP (activating G protein)

Activated G protein then binds to enzyme called adenylyl cyclase

Adenylyl cyclase then converts ATP into cAMP (2nd messenger)

cAMP activates protein kinase A which causes a cellular response

After cAMP activates PKA, it is converted into AMP by enzyme phosphodiesterase

Floating topic

Signal binds to GPCR & activates it

1st messenger

Source of ATP

PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Photosystems

Photosystem: reaction-center complex surrounded by light-harvesting complexes.

Reaction-center complex: an association of proteins holding a special pair of chlorophyll a molecules and a primary electron acceptor.

Light-harvesting complexes: pigment molecules bound to proteins

The light-harvesting complexes transfer the energy of photons to the reaction center.

In the reaction center, chlorophyll a transfers an excited electron to the primary electron acceptor

two kinds of photosystems embedded in the thylakoid membrane

Both use in non-cyclic flow of electrons

Photosystem I (PS I) The reaction-center chlorophyll a absorbs at 700 nm

Used in cyclic electron flow

The flow of electrons converts to cyclic when there is excess NADPH.

As electrons in PS1 are transferred to Fd, they are recruited to the cytochrome complex and plastocyanin molecules of the electron transport chain.

The movement of electrons leads to formation of ATP by photophosphorylation

Photosystem II (PS II)-The reaction-center chlorophyll a absorbs at 680

6 CO2 + 18 ATP + 12 NADPH + 12 H2O  C6H12O6 + 18 ADP + 18 Pi + 12 NADP+ 6 O2 + 6 H2O + 12 H+

Almost the reversed process of cellular respiration

As electrons are transferred down the ETC, energy is released which is used to pump H+ against their concentration gradient

It's different because Electrons are extracted from water and transferred to CO2. Oxidizing H2O and reducing CO2

Plant uses water from soil, light from sun, co2 from atmosphere to form organic compounds

STAGE ONE

Solar energy is converted to chemical energy through light reactions.

Light Reactions

Occur in the thylakoids of the chloroplasts.

Are carried out by molecules in the thylakoid membranes

Convert light energy to the chemical energy of ATP and NADPH

Split H2O and release O2 to the atmosphere

In order to provide electrons and protons, H2O is split.

O2 is released as a waste product

NADP+ reduces to NADPH

photophosphorylation generates ATP.

STAGE TWO

With the help of the NADPH and ATP produced by the light reactions, The Calvin cycle produces sugar from CO2

The Calvin Cycle

Takes place in the stroma

Uses ATP and NADPH to convert CO2 to the sugar G3P

Returns ADP, inorganic phosphate, and  NADP+ to the light reactions

Phase 1: Carbon fixation

Phase 2: Reduction

Phase 3: Regeneration of CO2 acceptor

Through carbon fixation CO2 is initially incorporated into an organic molecule

In order to reduce CO2, NADPH provides electrons needed, and ATP provides the necessary chemical energy.

photophosphorylation: The process of generating ATP from ADP and phosphate by means of chemiosmosis, using a proton-motive force generated across the thylakoid membrane of the chloroplast or the membrane of certain prokaryotes during the light reactions of photosynthesis.

Location

Photosynthesis occurs within the leaf, within the mesophyll, within the chloroplast.

Chloroplasts contain chlorophyll: light harvesting pigments

The structure contains a head and a tail.

Porphyrin ring: light-absorbing “head” of molecule, there is a magnesium atom at the center

Hydrocarbon tail: interacts with hydrophobic regions of proteins inside thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts

Consists of PS1 and PS2 along with components of the electron transport chain

H+s are pumped into the thylakoid space, so inside of thylakoid a lot H+ are present

H+ get back out of the thylakoid down their concentration gradient.

The energy from movement down the gradient is used to form ADP

Chlorophyll has chlorophyll a and b

Chlorophyll a contains CH3, chlorophyll b contains CHO

Mesophyll: The interior tissue of the leaf

Each mesophyll cell contains 30-40 chloroplasts

Cellular Respiration

Four Steps In Cellular Respiration (W/ Presence of Oxygen)

Cellular Respiration (W/O Presence of Oxygen)

Lactic Acid Fermentation

Input: 1 Glucose, 2 ATP, 2 NAD+

Net Output: 2 Lactic Acid, 2 NAD+, 2 ATP

Glycolysis occurs (w/o Oxygen) forms 2 Pyruvate and net 2 ATP

2 Pyruvate us reduced by NADH to form Lactic Acid

NADH gives up electron so it can be recycled and be reused in glycolysis

Alcohol Fermentation

Input: 2 ATP, Glucose, 2 NAD+

Net Output: 2 Ethanol, 2 NADH (Get recycled), 2 ATP, 2 CO2

3 Steps

1st- Glycolysis occurs (even w/o oxygen) and 2 Pyruvate form.

2nd- Pyruvate forms 2 Acetaldehyde which reduced to ethanol (2 NAD+ -> NADH)

When reduced, NADH donates electrons so it can be recycled for glycolysis.

Oxidative Phosphorylation (oxidative)

Input: NADH & FADH

Output: 26-28 ATP

2 Main Components

Chemiosmosis

ATP synthase facilitates diffusion of H+, b/c of the gradient so H+ is going from high to low (Intermembrane -> Matrix)

Energy is released by the movement of H+ down the gradient, allowing the ATP synthase to add phosphate to ATP to ADP

Electron Transport Chain (ETC)

Made up of 4 Complexes, I, II, III, & IV

Electrons from NADH & FADH are transported through complexes & release free energy as electrons travel

Free energy is used to pump H+ ions through to the inter-membrane, creating a H+ concentration gradient (complex's also serve as pumps)

Finally, after traveling through complexes & losing energy, electrons are added to oxygen (reducing it)

Citric Acid Cycle (substrate-level)

Input: 1 Acetyl CoA, 3 NAD+

Output: 1 ATP, 3 NADH, 1 FADH, 2 CO2

Consist of 8 Steps

3 Key Steps

1st Step- Acetyl CoA is added to oxaloacetate forming citrate

3rd Step- Isocitrate is oxidized & NAD+ is reduced forming NADH+, CO2 is produced

8th Step- Malate is oxidized, NAD+ converts to NADH, oxloacetate is reformed (restarts cycle)

Pyruvate Oxidation (substrate-level)

Quick Overview

Input: 2 Pyruvate, CoA enzyme, 2 NAD+

Output: 2 NADH, 2 Acetyl CoA, 2 CO2

Consist of 4 Steps

Step One- Pyruvate from cytosol (glycolysis) go into the mitochondria

Step Two- The pyruvate gets oxidized & electrons are transferred to NAD+ to NADH

Step Three- Carbon Dioxide is lost, CoA enzyme is added

Acetyl CoA is formed

Glycolysis (substrate-level)

Quick Overview

Input: 2 ATP, 2 NAD+, & 1 Glucose

Output: 2 Pyruvate, 4 ATP, 2 NADH

Net- 2 ATP, 2 Pyruvate, 2 NADH

Consist of 10 Steps, 5 Energy Investment & 5 Energy Payout Stages

Input's Include- 2 ATP, 2 NAD+, & 1 Glucose

Step One- Glucose turns into Gluc 6- Phosphate w/ the addition of one ATP & Hexokinase

Step Two- Gluc 6-phosphate converts to fructose 6-phosphate w/ phosphoglucoisomerase

Step Three- Fructose 6-phosphate converts to fructose 1,6 bi-phosphate w/ the addition of one ATP & phosphofructokinase

Step Four- Fructose 1,6 bi-phos is cleaved in half by Aldolase which makes it into two three-carb sugars

Step Five- The two three carb sugars both convert to G3P

Step Six- Both G3P's are oxidized, making NAD+ into NADH (electron carrier), free energy is used to add phos groups to G3P

Step Seven- The phos groups of the 1,3 biphosgly is added to ADP to make ATP (2 Total)

Step Eight- The one remaining phos-group of 3-phosgly is relocated by phosphoceromatase

Step Nine- Enolase removes H2O making 2 phos-pyruvate (PEP)

Step Ten- Pyruvate kinase takes phos from PEP thus making 2 ATP & 2 Pyruvate

Concept Map Two- Group 28

Cell Signaling

3. Response

2. Transduction

1. Reception

Intracellular Receptors

Signal passes through the plasma membrane

Signal binds to receptor in cytoplasm

Signal-receptor complex enter the nucleus & binds to genes

Cellular Response

Membrane Receptors

Ion Channel receptor

Signaling molecular called Ligand binds to receptor

1st messenger

After Ligand binds the channel opens and specific ions can flow through

Allowing ions to flow through the channel immediately changes concentration inside the cell, and can change the way the cell works

Tyrosine Kinase receptor

Receptor tyrosine kinase proteins (inactive monomers)

Signal molecules bind and form dimer

Phosphate groups are added and the tyrosine kinase receptor is fully activated

Inactive relay proteins bind to receptors and become active

Kinase= adds phosphate groups

G Protein linked receptor

Signaling molecule binds to extracellular side of receptor

Receptor activates and changes shape

G protein binds to plasmic side and activates now carrying GTP instead of GDP

Once activated G protein leaves receptor, and binds to enzyme activating it and changing the shape

Long distance signaling

Hormonal

Local Signaling

Synaptic

Paracrine

structure + function of polysaccharides determined by sugar monomer and type of glycosidic linkage

structure (e.g. cellulose, chitin)

hydrogen bonds between nitrogenous bases

LIPIDS

regulates membrane fluidity, component of hormones

contain 4 fused rings

Steroids

energy storage

glycerol and fatty acid linked by ester linkages

Fats (triacylglycerol)

Golgi Apparatus- Modifies proteins and involved in intercellular transport

Centrosomes- regulates cell motility & adhesion and polarity in interphase,

Vacuole- Animals have small vacuoles that mainly hold organic molecules and are responsible for transport through the plasma membrane.

Lysosome- digestive system of the cell, serving both to degrade material taken up from outside the cell and to digest obsolete components of the cell itself.

Cell Wall- Holds the plants together when exposed to hypotonic solutions that would otherwise burst the cell, making it 'turgid.'

Nucleus- Hold's genetic info, keep DNA integrity, and conduct replication & transcription

Plant

Central Vacuole- Unlike animal cells, plant cells have a large vacuole in the middle of the cell that holds a large amount of water.

Chloroplast- convert light energy into chemical energy via the photosynthetic process, contains plastids, and has its own DNA.

Endosymbiotic Theory- The beginning of eukaryotic cells organelle. Such as mitochondria and plastids, evolved from free-living prokaryotes that were consumed and formed a symbiotic with the cell that ate them. This is supported by the fact that Mitochondria and Chloroplast have their own separate DNA

Animal

Same Organelles in Both Types of Eukaryotes & Their Functions

Mitochondria- Responsible for making ATP and is double-membraned and has its own DNA

Rough ER- Ribosomes attached to wall that synthesize proteins

Smooth ER- Synthesizes lipids and detoxifies cells

Vacuole- Hold important organic materials or hold waste materials inside of cell's

Ribosomes Function - Synthesizing proteins

Membrane Bound Nucleus

Cell Wall made of Peptidoglycan (In Bacteria)

No Membrane Bound Nucleus

Chromosomes are Circular and float around in cytoplasm instead of a nucleus.

PROTEINS

Amino Acids: monomer in proteins

Hydrogen

R Group

Carboxyl group

Amino group

Response of cell to chemical stimuli

Coordination of an organism's activities

Transports of substances

Carrier proteins

Storage of amino acids

Protection against disease

Subtopic

Selective acceleration of chemical reactions

Enzyme

Quaternary

Two polypeptides in tertiary level, interacting with R groups

Tertiary

Forms final 3D shape

Folds through interaction of R groups

Basic

Ion dipole: Complete positive charge with water bond

Acidic

Hydrophilic

Polar Bonds

Non Polar Bonds

Hydrophobic interactions

Secondary

Alpha helices

Beta Plated Sheets

Primary

Polypeptide

Uses main chain to form bonds

Intramolecular Bonds: Covalent

PHOSPHOLIPIDS

imperative for cell life

linked to signal transductions

& organelle functions

& physiological processes

& human diseases

Each phospholipid has a specific transition temperature

goes into a liquid crystalline phase when the temperature is exceeded

phospholipids move rapidly when fluid

movement in membranes is regulated by the cholesterol in membranes

movement is reduced as temperature decreases

when this happens the membrane becomes more gel-like.

Bilayer forms by self assembly when contact is made with water

Self-assembly is a characteristic feature

acts as a barrier to protect the cell

Form because of their amphiphilic characteristics

hydrophilic heads make all contact with the solution

Tails point inside

Shielded from external environment

Two fatty acids attached to glycerol

Non polar hydrophobic tails

The type of hydrocarbon tails effects the plasma membrane fluidity

glycerol attaches to a phosphate group

polar hydrophilic head

hydrophilic because of the phosphate group

Exhibits negative charge within cell

Soluble in non polar solvents

Hydrophobic behavior

A type of lipid, one of the most important components of biochemistry

Major component of the cell membrane

impart selective permeability

they control the movement of molecules across the cell membrane

Membranes have saturated and unsaturated fatty acids to maintain the proper amount of fluidity

responsible for dynamic membrane fluctuations

Cytoplasm, DNA/RNA, Membrane, Ribosomes

Cellular Membrane- Semi-permeable barrier that allows essential molecules into the cell for use

DNA/RNA - Genetic material that's responsible for longterm storage of cellular information

Cytoplasm- Gel-like substance that is a medium for chemical reactions in cell

Prokaryotes (Archaea & Bacteria)

Capsules- Helps prokaryotes cling to each other and to various surfaces in their environment

Plasmids - genetic structure in a cell that can replicate independently of the chromosomes.

Eukaryotes

Membrane Bound Organelles

Cell Wall (if any) made of cellulose (or chitin in fungus)

Cells!!

Concept Map 1 - Group 28

Macromolecules

CARBOHYDRATES

storage (e.g. glycogen, starch, dextran)

covalent bonds between monosaccharides = glycosidic linkages

monomers = monosaccharides

NUCLEIC ACIDS

made up of monomers called nucleotides

DNA + RNA

DNA provides directions for its own replication + directs synthesis of mRNA

phosphodiester linkage between nucleotides

nucleotides contain phosphate group, 5-carbon, nitrogenous base