Proteins are a macromolecule that consists of monomers called amino acids, and polymers that are a called polypeptides. These proteins are made up of carbons, hydrogens, oxygens, nitrogen's, and sulphur's. Proteins functions can be divided in to two areas
The cell membrane plays a crucial role in cellular respiration by maintaining electrochemical gradients essential for ATP production. Respiration, an exothermic reaction, can occur both aerobically and anaerobically within and around the mitochondria.
The process of respiration utilizes carbohydrates to create energy in the form of ATP.
There are multiple enzymes that are used in replication such as helicase, topoisomerase, DNA polymerase III, DNA polymerase I, primase, and ligase. They all have different jobs in the process of replication. An example of one of the enzymes job would be helicase breaking the hydrogen bonds between the nitrogenous bases of DNA to unwind the double helix structure.
Structurally almost all enzymes are proteins.
RNA strands are synthesized through the process of transcription. These RNA's will go on to complete the job of synthesizing proteins.
This diagram shows the four stages of building a protein. There is the primary where it is a sequence of amino acids, the secondary where portions of the polypeptide begin to fold through hydrogen bonds, and there is the tertiary where the polypeptide has folded to form a 3-D structure. The quarternary is several polypeptides that come together to finally form a protein.
DNA is one of the two main classes of nucleic acids.
RNA is the other one of two main classes of nucleic acids
The three main types of RNA all help in the process of translation to synthesize a new protein.
DNA is used as a template to copy from in the process of transcription
The process of translation results in a chain of amino acids that will eventually fold together to form a protein.
DNA goes under replication as it carries the genetic information to build and maintain new cells.
The process of photosynthesis is to use energy to make glucose, a carbohydrate.
There are many proteins that are found in the cell membrane. These include peripheral proteins, integral proteins, transport proteins, and receptor proteins. All these proteins have different jobs across the membrane. An example would be transport proteins help large molecules to pass the semi-permeable membrane.
The Cell membrane connect to respiration through the electronic transfer chain. As the properties of the cell membrane of it being semi-permeable allow electro chemical gradients to form. Without the electro chemical gradient that hydrogen creates in the ETC chemiosmosis would not occur. This meaning ADP will not phosphorylate into ATP.
Lipids connect to respiration through phospholipids. As the amphiphilic phospholipids allow certain molecules into the membrane and others not during oxidative phosphorylation in the ETC. This causing an electro chemical gradient that phosphorylates ADP into ATP.
The phospholipid bilayer of the cell membrane is made up of fatty acids and phosphate groups. The non-polar fatty acids being with the polar phosphate groups also make this lipid molecule amphiphilic.
Enzymes are catalysts in the body as they speed up chemical reactions by reducing activation energy. Enzymes are able to do this with their unique structure. They have an active site, and an allosteric site. At the active site a substrate will either be broken down or brought together, to help reduce activation energy later on. A competitive inhibitor can also bind to the active site and halt the enzyme from working. At the allosteric site of the enzyme either an activator or a non-competitive inhibitor can bind. The binding of the activator will increase binding at active site, and the non-competitive inhibitor will block the active site from binding.
Replication is the process of copying a new DNA from an already existing DNA. This process occurs during s-phase in the cell cycle and can be broken to three phases. These phases include the initiation phase, elongation phase, and the termination phase. During these phases DNA is unwound and a two new daughter strands are copied using the old parent strands as a template. One strand called the leading strand is copied and replicated from 5' to 3' by adding one complimentary nitrogenous base at a time with the help of an enzyme called DNA polymerase III. The other daughter strand being copied is called the lagging strand and this is built with the help of the enzymes Primase, Ligase, and DNA polymerase I. After the daughter strands are copied they each pair with a parent strand and form two new double helixes.
Transcription is the copying of a specific gene from DNA to create mRNA. This process happens in the nucleus during interphase and is the first step in protein synthesis. This process can be separated into the three phases of interphase, elongation, and termination. In these steps RNA polymerase will attach to an area called the promoter region and will unwind the DNA helix to then catalyze the addition of nucleotides until it reaches the termination region. The mRNA strand is built using the anti-sense strand as a template and will look like the other strand of DNA called the sense strand. Once the mRNA strand is built it must go through modifications before leaving the nucleus to enter translation. These modifications include the addition of a modified guanine cap at the 5' end of the strand, a tail of many guanines at the 3' end, splicing of introns, and joining of exons. These modifications are put in place so that the mRNA can stay intact while in the cytoplasm and so that mRNA can attach to the rRNA in the ribosome easier.
Translation is the process in which mRNA is used to create a chain of amino acids that will fold to form a protein. The process of translation occurs in the cytosol at the ribosome. Translation can be split into three phases of initiation, elongation, and termination. First the mRNA from transcription will bind to the rRNA in the small subunit of ribosome. Then the large subunit of ribosome with three sites called the A-Site, P-site, and E site will clamp down on the small subunit. From here a tRNA with an amino acid will come in at the A-site move to the P-site, and another tRNA will come in at the P-site moving along with the other tRNA. As one tRNA reaches the T-site and leaves by moving along with the moving mRNA strand the other tRNA will follow and the amino acid from the first tRNA will form peptide bonds with the second at the P-site. As one tRNa leaves at the E-site a new tRNA will enter at the P-site, and this process will continue until the ribosome hits the end of the mRNA strand at the stop codon. At this point an amino acid chain will have formed, this will eventually fold and become a protein.
Respiration is an exothermic reaction that can occur both aerobically and aerobically in and around the mitochondria. The purpose or respiration is to break down the potential energy in carbohydrates to make the kinetic energy cells use called ATP. Aerobic respiration occurs in four stages glycolysis, pyruvate oxidation, Krebs cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation. These phases include the breakdown of carbohydrate, movement of electrons through electron carriers, and the loss and formation of ATP. A majority of the ATP made in the process happens at oxidative phosphorylation where electron carriers are used in a electron transport chain to ultimately phosphorylate ADP into ATP. There is a also anaerobic respiration that uses the process of fermentation to create ATP.
Photosynthesis is an endothermic reaction that occurs only in plants, some protists and cyanobacteria in the chloroplasts. The process of photosynthesis is using light energy to create glucose. Photosynthesis can be broken down in to three main steps. These steps include capturing light energy, using that energy to make ATP and reduce electron carrier NAD+ into NADH, then finally using ATP and NADH to make glucose from Co2.
RNA which stands for ribonucleic acid is the molecule that carries and transfers genetic information. RNA begins in the nucleus, but unlike DNA it is able to leave the nucleus. Also unlike DNA, RNA is only single stranded. The job of RNA is to transfer the genetic information DNA carries to other parts of the cell. A monomer of RNA include a phosphate group, a ribose sugar, and one of four nitrogenous bases. These bases consists of cytosine, guanine, adenine, and uracil. There are also several different types of RNA the main three include mRNA(messenger), tRNA(transfer), and rRNA(ribosomal). ALl of these RNA's also have two separate sides the 5' end and the 3' end.
DNA which stands for deoxyribonucleic acid is the molecule that contains the genetic information and resides only in the nucleus. This genetic information is used to build and maintain an organisms, and also to pass on to next generations. A monomer of DNA consists of a phosphate group, deoxyribose sugar, and one of four nitrogenous bases. The bases include cytosine, guanine, adenine, and thymine. These four bases also have complimentary pairings that form phosphodiester bonds in the double helix structure of DNA. DNA also has two different ends the 5' end and the 3' end.
Nucleic Acids is a macromolecule that include both DNA and RNA. So nucleic acids are made up of DNA and RNA monomers that are called nucleotides. The structure of nucleic acids consists of nitrogens, hydrogens, phosphates, oxygens, and carbons.The functions of nucleic acids is to copy and carry genetic information to pass on to cells.
This diagram portrays multiple nucleotides that link together through phosphodiester bonds to form a dna/rna strand.
Carbohydrates also known as sugars is a macromolecule that is made up of polymers that are made up of monomers. The monomers of carbohydrates called monosaccharides include glucose, fructose, galactose, and these synthesise using glycosidic bonds to form dissachrides that will evtually link to create a polysaccharide. The function of carbohydrates is to be broken down and turned into short term energy. In animals this short term energy is stored as glycogen and in plants it is stored as starch. Carbohydrates are made up of carbons, hydrogens, oxygens.
This diagram shows the momosaccharides bonding to from a dissacharide, and the dissacharides bonding to form a polysaccharide
Lipids are a macromolecule that are made up of mostly carbons, hydrogens, and oxygens. They exist as 5 main categories in living organisms. These include fatty acids, phospholipids, fats, waxes, and steroids. Lipids have many functions and they in include being a long term energy source, composing the cell membrane, insulating against heat loss, cushioning organs and regulating cell activities through hormones.
This diagram shows you a straight saturated fatty acid that are in animals a bent unsaturated fatty acids that are in plants.
Cell Membrane is a wall like structure that separates the inside of a cell from the outside environment. The cell membranes job is to allow certain materials into the cell and to block other materials from passing. The cell membrane is a phospholipid bilayer consisting of many proteins, glycolipids, and cholesterol. There are two ways to pass through the cell membrane and they are active and passive transport.
Proteins are a macromolecule that consists of monomers called amino acids, and polymers that are a called polypeptides. These proteins are made up of carbons, hydrogens, oxygens, nitrogen's, and sulphur's. Proteins functions can be divided in to two areas, regulatory proteins and structural proteins. Regulatory proteins are enzymes, messenger hormones, and defence antibodies that help regulate cells. Structural proteins help with movement and build structure, as hair, cell membranes, and muscle fibers all consists of these structural proteins.
