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If someone is deceased, they have a line across them.
When someone is a sutosomal carrier, they are half shaded in
A circle with a dot is an X linked carrier
CHILDREN
Identical twins are connected together to make a triangle
Fraternal twins are connected together from the beginning, like an upside down cone.
Attached to parents with a vertical line. Children are normally put in an order from eldest child, to youngest.
Example
MARRIED COUPLE/PARENTS
Married couples are attached with a horizontal line.
The basic shapes within a predigree chart
Introduction video to predigrees
In sex linked traits, the gene is only attached to the X chromosome. Sex linked disorders are more common in males than females.
In males, there is no other X chromosome to "mask" a recessive gene.
Females must inherit the disorder from both parents.
There are more than two alleles for a gene. For example, blood types consist of a dominant trait, and a recessive trait.
Punett square showing the predictions of blood type
Blood types-who can receive from who and who can donate
With codominance, both traits are shown equally with no sense of blending. The traits are represented by two different capital letters.
For example, if having normal cells was represented by NN and having sickle cells was SS, it would be NS.
Codominance square
When it is incomplete dominance, both of the letters have to be the same.
For example, if pink was a dominant trait, it would be P. If blue was recessive, it would be p. If you were to put the two together, it would be Pp.
Incomplete dominance square
TRIPLE X SYNDROME
There are 47 chromosomes. The female chromosome is the chromosome that is affected.
PATAU SYNDROME
Chromosome 13 is affected. 47 chromsomes, abnormal brain function that is severe, and those who have Patau Syndrome generally die in early infancy as well.
EDWARD'S SYNDROME
Chromosome 18 is effected. There are 47 chromosomes and those who suffer from Edward's Syndrome often die early in infancy.
DOWN SYNDROME
With down syndrome, chromosome 23 is affected. There are 47 chromosomes instead of 46 and the person may have heart defects, and specific/distinct characteristics.
If the patient has one large and one small chromosome, the patient is male (XY).
If the patient has two large chromosomes, the patient is female (XX).
This karyotype is showing the karyotype of a female who has down syndrome. If you do not know the name of the abnormality, you'd first say trisomy, and then the chromosome that has the abnormality
COMMON NON-DISJUNTION DISORDERS
Some common non-disjunction disorders are Edward's Syndrome, Down Syndrome, Turner's Syndrome, and Kleinfelter's Syndrome.
Non-disjunction is when chromosomes do not split properly. Non-disjunction results in zygotes having an abnormal chromosome number. An abnormal amount of chromosomes can damage the offspring.
Telophase I and telophase II
In telophase II, nuclei form and cytokinesis takes place afterwards.
Apart from the sister chromatids splitting, anaphase II is the same as anaphase in mitosis. In mitosis, the sister chromatids are identical. In meiosis, the sister chromatids are not identicle.
Metaphase II is the same as metaphase in mitosis
Prophase II is the same as prophase in mitosis.
Telophase I
Each pole has a haploid set of chromosomes. After telophase I, cytokinesis begins.
Anaphase I
Homologus chromosomes seperate but the sister chromatids remain attached at their centromeres.
Metaphase I
Metaphase I is the shortest phase in meiosis I. Tetrads line up on the metaphase plate.
After chromosomes cross over (late prophase)
Chromosomes crossing over
The chromosomes also "cross over." While the chromosomes are crossing over, chromatids break and reattach to another chromatid. The chromatids cross over to avoid making clones.
Prophase I is the first step of meiosis. Interphase I happens to be the longest and the most complex phase. Most of the meiotic process takes place here. Homologus chromosomes form a tetrad.
Interphase occurs before meiosis begins. The same things that happen in interphase of mitosis happen in meiosis. Chromosomes replicate.
Cytokinesis
Cytokinesis occurs after mitosis. The cell membrane move inwards and makes two daughter cells. Each daughter cell has a nucleus and identical chromosomes.
Telophase
Telophase is the fourth step in mitosis. In this stage, two neuclei form and mitosis ends.
Anaphase
In the third step of mitosis (anaphase), the chromatids separate and start to move to opposite ends of the cell.
Metaphase
Metaphase is the second step. The pairs of chromosomes attach to spindle fibers and line up in the middle of the cell, getting ready for separation.
Prophase
Prophase is the first step of mitosis. In prophase, centrioles appear and start to move the opposite ends of the cell. Spindle fibers form and the nuclear membrane starts to break down.
Interphase
Interphase happens before mitosis begins. During interphase, chromosomes are copied and change to sister chromatids by the end of this phase.
DNA STRUCTURE
Flat model of DNA
3D model of DNA
Within DNA, two bases make up a rung. Adenine pairs with thymine and guanine pairs with cytosine.
PRYIMADINES
Pyrimidines are small and have a single ring structure. Cytosine and thymine are pyrimidines.
PURINES
Purines are larger and have a double ring structure. Adenine and guanine are purines.
DNA has instructions for making protein in the body. The DNA model is shaped at a double helix. The double helix is made up of sugars and phosphate containing bases. There are four phosphate containing bases in DNA. They are cytosine, thymine, adenine, and guanine. The four bases are either purines or pyrimidines.
Amobea sisters video that we watched in class when we started to learn about genetics.
THE STORY OF DNA
Watson and Crick
Rosalind Franklin
Watson and Crick were two scientists who were seen as lazy jokers. There were three teams of scientists who were eager to discover the structure of DNA. Rosalind Franklin, Watson and Crick, and Franklin and Pauling. Watson and Crick were so eager to find the model and prove that they were right that they once presented a DNA model that was inaccurate. Rosalind Franklin was the scientist that was ahead of all and purposefully made Watson and Crick present the DNA model. Rosalind Franklin found the correct model, but Watson and Crick took all the credit. Before Rosalind could call the two scientists out and state that she was the one who actually discovered the model, she died of cancer.
PHENOTYPE - The physical apperance of a trait in an organism/chracteristics
GENOTYPE - The genes of an organism for one specific trait
ALLELE - Discrete version of the same gene.
TETRAD - Two chromosomes or four chromatids
DIPLOID - A cell or nucleus with two sets of chromosomes-one set from each parent.
ZYGOT- A fertilized egg.
Completing karyotypes helped me understand how genetic disease are diagnosed before or after a child is born.
I learned how to make a karyotype and how to examine them.
I learned about the diseases that were chromosomal, and the diseases that weren't. For example, before studying this unit, I did not know that Down Syndrome was chromosomal.
I learned that punnett squares are just prediction.
I learned how to make a punnett square
I learned that meiosis is the process of sexual reproduction
I also learned that meiosis II is very similar to mitosis, making it difficult to spot the difference when looking at either one.
I learned that meiosis I and meiosis II are very similar to mitosis.
I learned that mitosis was the process of cells dividing
I learned that adenine pairs with thymine and cytosine pairs with guanine.
I learned what DNA was made up of
IMPERFECT FUNGI (PHYLUM DEUTEROMYCOTA)
Example: Athlete's foot, ringworm, penicillum
Picture of penicillum
FUNGNI (PHYLUM ASCOMYCOTA)
Example: Cup fungi, yeast
Cup fungi
This is the largest group of fungi
EDIBLE MOLDS (PHYLUM BASICIOMYCOTA)
Example: mushrooms, puffballs.
Reproductive structure are called gills.
Gils on the underside of a mushroom.
FOOD MOLDS (PHYLUM ZYGOMYCOTA)
Bread mold is an example of a food mold.
Most fungi are classified by their shape.
Fungi reproduce asexually and sexually.
Asexual reproduction includes the breaking up of hypha (fragmentation), and the pinching off of a small hypha outgrowth (budding).
Fungi have the ability to ingest/absorb food through their cell walls. They are absorptive feeders.
Some fungi have cross walls which are also known as septa. Some cells lack septa and have multiple nuclei (multinucleated).
Fungi cell walls are made up of a sugar that is named chitin.
Some characterists of fungi are: eukaryotic cells, (must) have cell walls, heterotrophic, be multicellular and do not contain chlorophyll.
SPOROZOAN
Sporozoans reproduce asexually by spores. They do not move and often depend on their host's body to move around.
Picture of a sporozoan
FLAGELLATE
Flagellates move with a flagella and they all have flagellum. An example of a flagellate is a euglena.
Picture of a euglena that was taken in class witht he help of a mictoscope.
CLILATES
Ciliates move with cila, which are hair-like and can cover a cell. An example of a cilate is a pramecium.
Picture of a paramecium that was taken in class with the use of a microscope.The nucleus is very noticeable.
SARCODINES
Sarcodines have pseudopods. Pseudopods are like small feet. An example of a sarcodine is an amoeba.
Picture of an amoeba that was taken in class with the use of a microscope.
Animal like protists are alll heterotrophs, and are classified by the way they move.
An example of a plant like protist is a euglena.
MULTICELLULAR ALGAE
Multicellular algae do not have tissue, and is a food source for humans and fish.
UNICELLULAR ALGAE
Unicellular algae is important because they start every aquatic food chain. However, overpopulation can cause toxins to be made which is harmful to humans, and can overcrowsd space.
All plant like protists are autotrophs, have chlorophyll, and cell walls. There are two major groups: unicellular algae and multicellular algae.
Viruses are cured by vaccines. They are hard to treat because they mutate. Vaccines are a diluted version of the virus.
LYTIC CYCLE
RELEASE
The new virus parts are
ASSEMBLY
All viral parts are brought together to make into viruses.
SYNTHESIS
DNA or RNA direccts the host cell to make new virus parts. An example of the virus parts that the host cell are supposed to make are: capsid proteins, nucleic acid, and enzymes.)
ATTACHMENT
The virus reconizes a host cell, attaches itself to it, and enters the host cell
There are four steps of viral replivation. In this process, genetic material is duplicated before the host cell divides. These next four steps are apart of the lytic cycle, which is the active cycles.
LYSOGENIC CYCLE
The lysogenic cycle is the dormant cycle. Bacterium is copied and is present in every daughter cell.
Viruses are normally classified by hot range and the size and shape of the capsid
SIZE AND SHAPE OF CAPSID
Type of genetic material.
HOST RANGE
Example: cold virus, rabies, HIV.
Here are two typical viral structures.
Viruses are not made up of cells, do not use energy, do not produce waste, do not reproduce on their own, and do not grow. For these reasons, virues are not considered living. However, viruses are not considered living or non-living because they have attributes of both.
Watching The Vaccine War helped me understand that there are some people who believe that vaccines cause diseases like autism. This video didn't change how I felt about vaccines but gave me valid reasons as to why vaccines are good. Before watching The Vaccine War, I thought that vaccines were good for you, but now I understand the benefits of getting vaccinated and the dangers of not getting vaccinated.
Cyanobacteria and nitrogen-fixing bacteria are two examples of good bacteria. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria are found in nodules of soybeans, peanuts, and clover. Cyanobacteria are photosynthetic
Pathogens are harmful bacteria that are parasitic and cause disease.
Pink - Negative
Purple - Positive
Some common shapes of bacteria are coccus, bacillus, and spirillum.
For movement, some bacteria have flagellas, and some have pili. Bacteria can be moved by air currents, water currents, and on any surface.
Bacteria have cell walls that are made up of peptoglycan, which are polysaccharides linked with chains of amino acids. Some bacteria have a layer made out of gelatin which is called a capsule, which surrounds the cell wall.
When reproducing, bacteria do not go through mitosis or meiosis . Bacteria either reproduce asexually using binary fission, or sexually using conjugation. This is how bacteria become antibiotic-resistant.
Bacteria contain plasmids, and ribosomes. Bacteria are able to share plasmids with each other and they do not have nuclei. Bacteria are unicelluar, and prokaryotic. Some bacteria require oxygen to survive and others do not.
Watching Frontline: Hunting the Nightmare Bacteria opened my eyes and showed me what dangerous bacteria can do to someone's body. For example, Addie's story/segment showed me how quickly bacteria moves. One day Addie was fine and the next day she was in need of a lung transplant
Addie's story
SEDENTARY - Don't move around and have lives that are anchored somewhere.
AUTOTROPH - An organism that can provide nutrition to itself by using organic matierials.
MULTI-NUCLEATED - Having more than one nuclei.
MULTICELLULAR - An organism consisting of many cells.
PILI - Short, thick outgrowths that help cells attach to different surfaces.
LOCOMOTION - Ability to move from one place to another.
FLAGELLA - Threadlike structure that allows bacteria and cells to move/swim around.
BINARY FISSION - Asexual reproduction. Binary fission is the common way that prokaryotes (such as bacteria) reproduce.
EUBACTERIA - "True" bacteria
PROTISTS
I had no idea what protists were before we started this unit. I learned that all protists have a way of moving and that some eat other protists. Amoebas are an example of protist eating protists that move with their pseudopods and then engulf/absorb their food. Out of all of the protists that we have learned about, amoebas are my favourite due to the fact that they engulf their food instantly.
FUNGI
I now know that there is one kind of fungi that can be edible and some that are dangerous to eat. Before, I used to believe that fungi were just mushrooms.
I learned a lot about fungi after studying this unit. I didn't know much about fungi until i learned that it reproduces, it is the largest living organism, and that there are different kinds of fungi.
VIRUSES
I learned that there viruses cannot be cured, and that when they do "go away," they are just in the dormant cycle. Some bacteria are antibiotic resistant.
After learning about viruses, I now know that viruses are not considered living or non-living, how viruses reproduce, and that they remain in two cycles, the lysogenic and lytic cycle.
I didn't know that some bacteria require oxygen to live.
I learned that there are different types of bacteria. Two examples of the different types of bacteria are archea and eubacteria.
Diffusion
Osmosis
Facilitated diffusion
Pumps
Pinocytosis
Phagocytosis
Endocytosis
INDICATOR TEST: To test for monosaccharides, you use Benedict's solution. If the solution goes from blue to green/brown/orange, it is a carbohydrate. To test for polysaccharides, you use iodine. If it goes from orange to black/purple, it is a carbohydrate as well.
Carbohydrates are made out of simple sugar (monosaccharides), and complex sugars (polysaccharides). Carbohydrates are responsible for providing the body with short term energy. Monosaccharides are found in sweet drinks, fruits and vegetables, and milk. They provide a short burst of energy. Polysaccharides are found in foods like pasta, bread, and potatoes. They take longer to digest and provide a longer burst of energy.
Foods that contain carbohydrates.
INDICATOR TEST: To test for proteins, use biuret's solution. If its positive, it'll turn from blue to purple.
Proteins are made up of over 15 different amino acids. Proteins are responsible for building and repairing muscle and tissue. Proteins are found in meat, fish, nuts, and milk.
Foods that contain proteins
INDICATOR TEST: Paper bag test. Smear the substance onto the paper bag and if there is a grease stain or is translucent, the substance contains lipids.
Paper bag test done in a lab in class. The grease indicates that the substance (peanut butter) was a lipid.
Lipids are made up of fatty acids. They are responsible for making up the cell membrane and providing the cell structure, providing isolation, and storing long term energy. Fatty foods contain lipids and an example of these fatty foods are oils, eggs, and nuts.
Foods that contain lipids
The best temperature for enzymes in the human body is 37 degrees.
This was tested with a potato enzyme lab we did at the beginning of the semester. Four test tubes contained potatatoes and each test tube contained different things. Test tube A had hydrogen peroxide, test tube B had water and was put in a hot water bath and hydrogen peroxide was put in afterwards, and test tube C had been put in the fridge to get cold before putting hydrogen peroxide in it.
Test tube C (cold) had a very small reaction. It wasn't as active as test tube A.
Test tube B (hot) had no reaction. The enzymes were denatured.
Test tube A (room temperature) had the best reaction, proving that enzymes work best in room temperature.
When the new substrate can fit into the enzyme, it's called lock and key.
When the new substrate cannot fit into the enzyme, it alters it's shape. This is called an induced fit.
Example of a substrate and an enzyme
Left the dialysis tube overnight. The water moved into the tube without needed to puncture large holes into it. The starch in the tube went from white to a deep purple. (2)
The solution on one side of a membrane where solute concentraion is greater than on the other side. Hypertonic solutions contain a high concentration of solute
The solution one side of a membrane where the solute concentration is less than on the other side. Hypotonic solutions contain a low concentration of solute
With osmosis, water is the only thing that moves.
Some things that can affect the way these molecules move can be: temperature, pressure, and concentration.
Molecules spread tend to spread out over a large area. Everything spreads out but water. All of the molecules tend to move apart within time and move from an area of high concentration, to low concentration.
Found in: plant cell
The cell wall surrounds cells and is outside of the cell membrane.
Lysosomes are the trash disposal of the cell. They contain digestive enzymes that break down all waste
The golgi apparatus is responsible for collecting, modifying and packaging molecules in the cell. It also distributes and moves molecules.
Found in: animal and plant cells
There are two kinds of ER. They are rough ER and soft ER. Rough ER is covered with ribosomes. Smooth ER has no ribosomes and makes hormones and lipids (fats).
Found in: animal, plant, and prokaryotic cells.
Ribosomes are the smallest organelle and are not surrounded by a membrane. Ribosomes are responsible for making proteins.
Found in: plant and animal cells
The nucleus is the control center of the cell and stores DNA/chromosomes. It is surrounded by the nuclear membrane. The nucleus contains the nucleolus, which makes ribosomes.
Found in: animal, plant, and prokaryotic cells
The cell membrane surrounds the cell and decides what enters the cell, and what leaves the cell. The cell membrane is semipermeable. The cell membrane is made up of a phospholipid bilayer.
Anatomy of an animal cell
Both of these cells function similarly. Cell organelles are only found in eukaryotic cells. Most are membrane bound
Eukaryotes have nuclei and have membrane bound organelles There are two types of eukaryotic cells: Animal and plant cells.
Prokaryotic cells do not have nuclei and no membrane bound organelles. They are unicellular.
I've learned the difference between active transport and passive transport.
I learned that enzymes and a new substrate can either have an induced fit, or a "lock and key" fit.
I learned about how enzymes can be denatured
I learned how to test for macromolecules
I learned that carbohydrates are separated into twp categories - monosaccharides and polysaccharides.
I learned that some macromolecules are beneficial to the body.
Osmosis and diffusion was fun to learn for the first time. I did not know that molecules can move basically by themselves, along with water.
I have a better understanding of what roles cell organelles play and what their functions are.
Although I didn't learn much about cells, I expanded my knowledge on cells and cell organelles
I have not only learned how to use a microscope properly, but I have also learned the proper names for the parts of a microscope and the functions.
EGESTION
Egestion happens within the large intestine. During egestion, toxic wastes are removed. Feces contains toxic waste and cellulose.
Egestion
ABSORPTION
The small intestine is lined with vili. Most absorption takes place within the small intestine.
Absorption
DIGESTION
Once the food exits the stomach, it goes to the small intestine. The small intestine is separated into three parts, the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. The small intestine only absorbs fats, carbohydrates, and amino acids
Digestion
The food is now in the stomach and moves in and out through the sphincters. Hydrochlorc acid breaks down the food. The stomach is lines with mucus to protect it from burning due to the acid.
Fetal pig's stomach.
The inside of the fetal pig's stomach after it was cut open.
INGESTION
The first step of digestion is ingestion. Teeth chew food and saliva not only moistens the mouth, but the enzymes in saliva help break down the food. The tongue has the responsibility of pushing the food down the esophagus.
Ingestion starts at the mouth.
Picture of the pig's esophagus and epiglottis. This pig was apart of our fetal pig dissection. (The probe is pointing at the epiglottis)
LARGE INTESTINE
The large intestine is responsible for collecting any vitamins and minerals that may have been missed in the small intestine. Any undigested food is feces.
A virtual image of the large intestine
ACCESSORY ORGANS
GALLBLADDER
The gallbladder stores bile.
The probe is pointing to the pig's gallbladder.
LIVER
The liver is simular to a filter. It is responsible for cleaning blood and draining the stomach, spleen, and the large and small intestines. The liver makes bile, which helps break down fats.
Fetal pig's liver. We found that our liver seemed to be darker in colour than the other pigs that were being dissected around us.
PANCREAS
The pancreas is responsible for neutralizing acidic things in the stomach that might be acidic before they continue to move to the small intestines.
The endocrine system in females and males
The endocrine system is the system that is in charge of the hormones in the body. The endocrine system consists of the hypothalamus, pineal glands, thyroid glands, adrenal glands, gonads, thymus, and pituitary glands
LOWER RESPIRATORY TRACT
The lower respiratory tract consists of the larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs. The larynx ensures that food and air go in the right direction. The trachea has rings around it that is made up of cartilage to prevent it from closing. The bronchi branch into the lungs, and the lungs transport air to the alveoli for gas exchange.
Picture of the alveoli
The pig's lungs
The probe is pointing at the pig's trachea
UPPER RESPIRATORY TRACT
The upper respiratory tract allows almost every living organism to smell. Mucus and small hairs within the nosal cavity help filter the air that is taken in.
Upper respiratory tract.
The respiratory system allows someone to breathe in oxygen and eliminate carbon dioxide. Breathing has two phases: inspiration and expiration.
There are three main parts of the circulatory system is the heart, vessels, and blood.
HEART
The heart is responsible for pumping the blood that is in your body. The blood enters the heart through the inferior and superior vena cava. The blood then leaves the heart through the valves , into the pulmondary veins and to the lungs where it collects oxygen.
Anatomy of the heart
Image of the pig heart.
VESSELS
Blood vessels make a pathway in and out of the heart. There are three different kinds of blood cells. They are arteries, veins, and capillaries.
VEINS
Veins are large and thin walled vessels. Veins have one way valves to prevent blood and oxygen from going back through the veins.
Veins
CAPILLARIES
Capillaries are so small that you would need a microscope to look at them. They are thick and carry blood through the body under low pressure.
ARTERIES
Arteries are large, thick walled, and muscular. They carry oxygenated blood.
An artery
BLOOD
PLASMA
Plasma is clear and is made up of 91% water and makes up 55% of blood.
An example of how much plasma, platelets, and red and while blood cells make up.
PLATELETS
Platelets gather at damaged blood cells and join together and clog the area.
Platlets
WHITE BLOOD CELLS
White blood cells defend the body against bacteria and viruses. . They help destroy invaders by making antibodies.
White blood cells with red blood cells.
Blood consists of four components: red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets, and plasma.
Red blood cells carry a majority of oxygen and carry an iron containing protein called hemoglobin. Red blood cells lack of a nucleus to make room for more oxygen. There are dips in red blood cells that show where the nucleus should be.
Red blood cells
The muscle system has three different types of muscle groups. They are the involuntary smooth muscle, and skeletal muscles. The involuntary muscles are found in the heart.
Muscles help complete daily functions like sitting, running, walking, talking, and standing.
The muscle system
The integumentary system involves skin. The integumentary system consists of hair, nails, epidermis, sebaceous glands, hypodermis, and dermis.
the integumentary system
The reproductive system is the only body system that is different in both genders. In males, the two major parts of the reproductive system is the penis and the testes. In females, the main parts of the reproductive system is the labia minora, labia majora, clitoris, and Bartholin's gland.
The reproductive system
The male pig's reproductive system. Under the pig's umbilical cord, there is one hole, indicating that the pig is a male
The adult skeletal system has a total of 206 individual bones. The skeletal system includes the skull, pelvic girdle, ribs and sternum, lower limb, upper limb, and vertebrae.
The skeletal system
The nervous system is broken down into two parts-the central nercous system and the peripheral system. The nervous system helps the body recieve information about our surrounds, helps with motor functions, and helps with sensations.
The fetal pig's brain
A brain pun
The excretory system has the job of eliminating cellular waste produccts or any other substances that are not needed from the body. The structures within the excretory system include the kidneys, ureter, bladder, and urethra.
KIDNEYS
There are four stages that the kidneys go through. They are filtration, reabsorption, secretion and excretion.
EXCRETION
Urine is carried by ureters, which allow urine to be stored in the bladder. When the urine has to be released, the urinary sphincter opens and urine exits through the urethra.
SECRETION
During secretion,substances that have been left behind are moved to the nephron for elimination.
REABSORPTION
Reabsoption happen in the loop of henle.
FILTERATION
Blood travels to a nephron and fluids are processes to enter Bowman's Capsule
Labelled diagram of the kidneys.
In females, the urethra is about an inch and a half long, In males, it is eight inches long.
The lymphatic system is an important part to the immune system. The lymphatic system includes lymph nodes, lymphatic ducts, lymphatic nodules, lymphatic vessels, and lymphatic nodes.
The lymphatic system
I learned what all the body systems did and how they all worked together to make sure that the body runs smoothly.
Before, I did not know that the gallbladder and bladder were two different organs. After dissecting the fetal pig, I understood that they were definitely not the same thing.
I learned that veins have valves just like the heart. The valves are like doors.
I learned that there is a way to remember the 11 body systems (LENSRIMCRED). I did not know much about the heart or the way blood flows through the body.
I did not know about homeostasis until the topic was introduced to us in class. I had no idea that shivering and sweating were ways that the body attempted to regulate the temperature
