Категории: Все - phenotype - mutation - selection - evolution

по EV - 11PM 677879 Sandalwood Heights SS 2 лет назад

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Biology

The process of evolution involves the gradual change in allele frequencies in a population, which can eventually lead to the formation of new species. This change is driven by several mechanisms, including natural selection, where individuals with certain advantageous traits are more likely to survive and reproduce.

Biology

Biology

Plants

phloem
Phleom loading

sink

other processes

storage

growth

metabolism

loading carbon into the pholem

transport to different sinks in plants

found in external root cylinders
stores

water

in charge of

distribution of organic nutrients

transportation

vascular tissue
transport of water

cohesion

cohesion-tension theory

3.then pulled up the plant stem

2.water molecules in xylem under tension

1. water pulled through a leaf

hydrogen bonds make water molecules stick

water concentration different from solute concentration

water moves in/out a cell

moves from high to low concentration

water molecules diffuse across a membrane

transpiration

water evaporates from living surface

Properties of cell membrane

Cell transport
active transport

actively pump compounds to direction wants to go

use another class of membrane proteins

to transport against concentration gradient

movement of material using energy

endocytosis

pinocytosis

molecules dissolved to liquid

necessary for cell

cell drinking

phagocytosis

cell engulfs

particles into its cytoplasm

other cells

macromolecules

cell eating

bulk transport

secretory vesicle

from Golgi body or ER

Move large amounts of material out/in cell

facilitated diffusion

ions cant pass through simple diffusion

spontaneous passage of molecules/ions

across the membrane

osmosis

reactions

cell has equal concentration of water

isotonic

same concentration

area of high to low area of water concentration

movement of water down concentration gradient

special diffusion

simple diffusion

no energy to move particles

particles move at equal rates

from high to low concentration

movement of particles

from area of high concentration to low concentration

cell membrane
asymetrical structures
fluid like structures
all cells/organelles surrounded by a membrane
consists of phospholipid bilayer
held by non-covalent interactions
thin enclosures

forms closed boundaries

made of

carbohydrates

proteins

lipids

Impact of the cystic fibrosis

clog the ducts of the pancreas
cause decrease in secretion of enzymes

from the pancreas, normally digest food

block normal absorption of nutrients/fat in intestines
causes

trouble gaining weight

slow growth

poor digestion

Undigested food cause
blockages
constipation
gas
cramping
pain
prevents enzymes reaching small intestine
to digest food
changes in electrolyte transport system
cells absorb too much sodium/water

environmental impact on the respiratory system

coal workers
exposure to coal dust

hard to breathe

scarring in lungs

black lung disease

coal dust inhaled

smoking
secondhand smoking

affect lung function

destroys lungs structure
toxic substance

triggers inflammation

chemicals
side effects:

sore throat

nasal congtestion

sneezing

chemical filled air

chlorine

noxious gas

leads to lung disease

Air pollution
exposure to it

sometimes premature death

stroke

heart attacks

risk of lung cancer

chest pain
asthma
wheezing
coughing
shortness of breath
can irritate airways

Factors affecting Varriation

important genes themselves dont cause disease

genetic disorders caused by

“the cystic fibrosis gene

variants alter/eliminate gene’s function

prevent embryo from surviving until birth
chromosomal errors
Rings:
Translocations:
Deletions:
Inversions:
Structural Abnormalities:
Conditions

Turner’s Syndrome

Klinefelter Syndrome

Down Syndrome

Edwards Syndrome

Patau’s Syndrome

zygote formed from gamete not experienced non-disjunction

resulting offspring have extra/missing chromosomes

Chromosomal Abnormalities

occur when an error in cell division

non-disjunction
Non disjunction can be in both Meiosis I/Meiosis II
unbalanced gametes in translocation

result in inviable embryos

higher frequency abnormal meiotic disjunction
Translocation Heterozygotes
failure of homologous chromosomes disjoin correctly

failing to separate correctly

meiosis

Mendel's laws

second law
independent assortment

dihybrid cross

occurs during prophase 1 of meiosis

alleles of different genes

independently segregate from one another

first law
monohybrid cross
alleles can be

heterozygous

homozygous

offspring one copy from each parent
during formation

allele pair separate from each other

each gamete receives1 pair

seperation of two copies

of gene during formation of gametes

endosymbiotic theory

eukaryotic creatures made of creatures
endosymbiont
organism lives in another
Eukaryotic cells evolved when multiple cells joined together into 1

speciation

co evolution
one species evolves

in response to another

convergent evolution

analogous features

unrelated species

similar phenotype

live similar environment

divergent evolution
evidence

homologous features

2/more species

evolve different traits

diversifying selection

reproductive barrier
post zygotic barriers

hybrid breakdown

two hybrids mate

offspring weak/sterile

crossed species viable/fertile

hybrid sterility

infertile

gamete not produced

hybrid inevitability

unlikely live long

fertilisation successful

between related species

zygote/embryo

fails develop properly

pre zygotic barriers

gametic isolation

gametes die

before uniting gametes

mechanical isolation

structural differences

stop gamete exchange

behavioural isolation

little/no sexual attraction

habitat isolation

breed different habitats

temporal isolation

breeding different times

reproduction happens

before zygote happens

sometimes dont occur

stop species

from producing

viable hybrid offspring

fertile

modes
sympatric

split

share same location

new species

can origniate

same area of parents

differnt gene pools

allopatric

diversification of

common ancestrol species

into adapted species

aquatic species

separated

from construction dams

sncestral population

seperated

from geological barrier

formation new species
from old species
individual
potential interbreed

produce

viable offspring

patterns of natural selection

directional selection
distribution curve of phenotype

towards extreme

favours phnotypes

to an extreme

stabilising selection
favours intermediate phenotype
acts against variants
distributive selection
favours extreme range phenotype

rather than intermediate

results

elimination extreme phenotype

Natural/artificial selection compared

artificial selection
breeding of animals

breeder chooses traits

produces varieties of organisms
Gray tree frog

on bark

predator can easily see

reproduction decreases

blend with dark areas

hard for predator see

biological diversity
organisms adapt/change

helps organism survive

better in environment

not so adapted

reproduce/survive less

better adapted to enviorment

survive/reproduce more

history

current theory
charles darwin

evolution takes natural selection

main idea

environment combination of

environmental influence

random variations

proposed mechanism

related by decent

not created in present

evolved from ancestral species

old theories
jean baptiste

inheritance acquired characteristics

organisms have

pass trait to offspring

uses organ to grow

no organ, its small

perfection

complexity

William palley

beilived

organisms had a maker

god

sir Charles Lyell

uniformitarianism

geological change

geological time

millions of years old

gradual

slow

Cuvier theory
James Hutton

theory of actualism

geological formations of land forms

Baron Georges

catastrophism

extinct life forms

replaced with new species

global castrophes

widespread extinctions

pre darwinian

adaptation

work of creator

variations imperfections

decides

structure organisms

function organisms

species specially created

# of them same

no change

over several generations

characteristics change

theory
living things evolved

simple forms

change in genes

takes many generations

organisms charactistics changed

mechanisms

more genetic variation

greater selective advantage

greater diversity

change that occurs

in the DNA

randomly introduces

new alleles in population

gene flow
change allele frequencies

in both populations

through flow or movement

of genes

two different inbreeding populations

different allele frequencies

movement of alleles

from one population

to another

from migration of individuals

non random mating
increases proportion

of homozygous in a population

dosent affect

alleles frequencies

select mates

based on phenotype

sexual selection
choice females make

for mates

competition between males

through visual display

through combat

genetic drift
natural selection

you forgot to state that the gradual change in allele frequencies may lead to speciation.

selection of individuals

certain traits

better suited survive

reproduce other populations

likely reproduce/survive

than others

wide range of

some produce

more offspring than others

genotype

phenotype

sources of variation

immigration of genes
new organisms

join population

form changing

allele frequencies

transfer of genes

between different population

through migration

recombination
genetic diversity

differences DNA sequences

different organisms

DNA broken

recombined and produce

new combination alleles

mutation
somatic mutations

in body cells

not passed on

DNA copying mistakes

during cell division

exposure

mutagens

ionization radiation

change DNA sequence

Darwin/Wallace evidence

Both researchers
created theory

mostly known as Darwin theory

Wallace
discovered many specimen
distribution of animals

divides Asian/Australian animals

living things

change over time

Darwin
proposed

species change over time

share common ancestor

kingdoms

Protista

algae

amoeba

or heterotrophic

can be autotrophic

look like blob of slime

plant cell like wall

animal cell like membrane

one or many nuclei

no tissues/organs

sometimes a colony cell

Archaebacteria

thermophiles

halophiles

methanogens

few species photosynthetic

capture the energy of sunlight

derive their energy and nutrients

from breaking down molecules in the environment

chemotrophs

cell structure

Archaellum

Tail-like structures assist in the movement

Pilus

cell attachment

Ribosome

protein synthesis.

Cell wall

structure/protection from outside environment

Cell membrane

separates cell from outside environment

Cytoplasm

Cellular fluid

Plasmid

DNA physically separated from chromosomal DNA.

Nucleoid

contains its DNA

semi rigid cell wall

protects form environment

lacks:

membrane

nucleus

single cell organism

Eubacteria

Salmonella

Escherichia Coli

take food from outside sources

heterotrophs

Cell structure

DNA not in a nucleus

lack cell organelles

enclosed by a cell wall

made of cross linked chains

lack nucleus

single celled

Cell type

circular chromosome

prokaryotic

Fungi

mildews

sac fungi

mushrooms

molds

yeast

Nutrition

considered heterotrophs

cant produce own food

get nutrients from:

dead matter

animals

beneficial for vegetarians

decompose deceased organic compounds

from organic compounds

thread like filaments

hyphae/hypa

dived into cells (septa hyphae)

compared to bacterial plasmids

loops of DNA

bound nucleus

has membrane

eukaryotic/multicellular organism

Animalia

cows

feed of plants/animals

cant produce own food (heterotrophs)

no cell wall

has membrane bound nucleus/organelles

enclosed by plasma membrane

eukaryotic cells

multicellular

Plantae

liverworts

mosses

kelp

seaweed

nutrition

considered autotrophic

create nutrition through photosynthesis

structure

nucleus/chloroplast also there

regular plant cell look

cell wall surrounding cell membrane

cell type

have tissues/organs

eukaryotic/multicellular organisms

Vaccines

vaccines trigger
cell mediated response
humoral response
B memory cells
remembers antigen exposed

remembers antibody that worked on it

B-cells
produce antibodies
Hyper T cell
remembers antigen
Cytotoxic T -cell
destroys infected cells through antigens
attenuated virus
without healthy immune

may have infection

grown in lower body temps
Dead virus
capsid injected with chemicals

cause inflammation

exposed to chemicals
exposes immune system to virus
allows body to fight it off
weaken form of a virus

Characteristics of viruses

mutations

COVID-19

Sars-COV-2

HIV

some will hurt bacteria

have no affect

or make it stronger

are mistakes
Lysogenic cycle
7. lysis
6.assembly
5.replication
4. latency/incubation
3. intergration

DNA inserts into hosts DNA

2. entry
1. attachment
Lytic cycle
5.lysis/release
4.assembly
3.replication
2. insertion/entry

genetic info takes over control of host cell

1. attachment/absorption
Classification
shape/structure of virus
method of reproduction
type of genetic material
type disease virus causes
Structure/shape of capsid
Host range
limited host species virus can affect
organisms the virus infects
Types of viruses
RNA

single stranded RNA in capsid

double stranded DNA in capsid

Host specificity
kingdom specific

may/may not be species specific

all kingdoms can be infected
Viral structure
Virus cell

enclosed in an evelope

nucleic acid core

contains DNA or RNA

contains capsid

reproduces inside host cell
outside host cell

viruses inactive

has spikes to attach
cant eat/grow on their own
cant move on their own
very small
non cellular
non living structures
made of genetic material/protein
invades living cells

Linnean classification system

7 levels of classification
Jhon Ray
classifeid over 19000 species of

four footed animals

birds

first to use term species
St.Augustine
middle ages:

classified as what they produce

wood

vegetable

fruit

animal classification

useless

harmful

useful

Carl Linnaeus
Greatest discoveries

the "economy of nature"

first naturalist to describe food chains

ecology around natures concept

collection of specimen

invaluable resource of taxonomy

compromise specimen of :

insects

shells

fish

plants

higher level classication

7 seven levels of taxa

binomial nomenclature

organism: two part scientific names

biological classfication

Taxonomy

history of taxonomy

1000 species grouped by kingdoms

grouped animals by habitat

identified by complexity

assigning organism to a group

naming an organism

system based on organism features:

structural

physical

sweetish naturalist

Evidence

DNA

relationship from DNA

simialr pattern of DNA

gene sequences

genes for traits change by mutation

from their offspring

species pass their traits

dofgs related to bears

whales related to ungulates

inhertied from the acenstor

anatomy
analogous structures

different species evolve , different origin

no common evolutionary origin

homologous structures

homologous hair

found in mammals

similar structural elements

similarities

functional similarity

species not closely related

don't share common ancestor

bones support birds wings

material makes up insets wings

lower limbs of

human/

frog

perform same function

horse

muscles

ligaments

number of bones

blood vessels

differences

differ on organisms

environment

lifestyle

different functions

vertebrate forelimbs

contain same set of bones

organised similar ways

common ancestor

used for various functions

flying

swimming

running

Embryology
similarities of embryos

related species

share adult features

common ancestrol origin

different organism

similar embryonic development

example

vertebrata embryos paired pouches

pre birth stages in organism
determine evolutionary relationships
fossil records
types of fossils

transitional fossils

shares characteristics

common to two seperate groups

links between groups of organism

mold fossils (imprints)

fossil makes a mark

image is backwards

hollow fossil

shows

skin/fur

embryos

claws

teeth

leaves

true form fossils

parts of organism

replaced by minerals

displaced minerals harden

become rock

not formed unsing impression

limbs

torsos

fingers

heads

trace fossils

organism living

how it hunted

how it rested

examples

burrows

nests

footprints

tooth marks

information on traces

preserved remains/traces and activity
history of life

species alive in the past

young layers of rock

chronological order of rock layers

not all aorganism in fossil record

Subtopic

this is the risk of using images that you don't add to this yourself. this one is missing.

oldest fossil in deepest layer

biogeography
splitting of Pangea

Earth's continents large land mass

likely organisms lived on Pangaea

organisms split up

fossils dated/found

in multiple continents

with same age

past/present geographical distribution

of species populations

factors determine those patterns

species

evolved in one location

biogeography suppots hypothesis

closely related species found in same habitat

animals resemble those in close continents

lizards found on the canary islands

similar to lizards found in west africa

finches evolved

from mainland migrants

adaptive radiation

geographically close enviorments

populated by realted species

cacti native to deserts of noth/south america

not found naturally in deserts

rather locations geographically separate

same species

in neighbouring continents

darwin and Wallace hypothesized