по Stephanie Sustaita 1 года назад
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Hates water : (
Hearts water <3
Unsaturated fats come from plant sources and are liquid at room temperature. These fats have one or more double covalent bonds that are found within the carbon chain. These molecules do NOT have hydrogen atoms at every position along the carbon chain.
Monounsaturated Fats: one double bond
Polyunsaturated Fats: more than one double bond
Unsaturated Fatty Acids Isomers
Trans Isomers ( opposite side) AKA Transfats: the presence of a double bond with hydrogens on opposite sides.
Cis Isomers (same side): the presence of a double bond in cis causes the molecule to have a kink compared to the trans fatty acid.
Saturated fats are solid at room temperature. There are no double covalent bonds between carbons because these molecules are saturated with hydrogen atoms at every position. They are also associated with an increase in cardiovascular disease.
Water-loving molecules exclude hydrophobic molecules such as lipids, which means that hydrophobic molecules stick together when in an aqueous environment. Amphiphilic molecules take advantage of the environment to surround hydrophobic molecules yet still flow with the surrounding water.
Water is extremely vital when it comes to forming and breaking ester bonds. These are seen in Lipids, carbohydrates, proteins, DNA, and basically everything.
Water has strong intermolecular bonds as a result of bring so polar. This allows for a high heat of vaporization and high specific heat. In turn, this helps to regulate temperatures so biology can exist the way it does.
Water is the universal solvent because of its strong polarity and its relatively low molecular weight. Liquid water is everywhere.
Ion-dipole (4)
The strongest type of intermolecular bond. Seen commonly in dissolved solutions, such as salt water. Thus, salt water is more difficult to freeze and boil. This bond is between a fully charged ion and a partially charged side of a molecule. For instance, the negative Cl ion with the positive H´s in salt water.
Seen in the tiertiary structure of protiens.
Dipole-dipole (2)
Covalently bonded molecules that are polar have a dipole movement. The partially negative side of one molecule will bond with the partially positive side of another molecule. Stronger than london dispersion, but weaker than Ion-dipole.
Hydrogen bond (3)
A type of dipole-dipole where a hydrogen is covalently bonded to a N, O, or F. This hydrogen is then intermolecularly bonded to any polar N, O, or F element of another molecule
Hydrogen bonds are incredibly important. They hold together proteins, DNA, enable water to be water, create functional groups, and regulate temperatures. They are a stronger form of dipole-dipole
London Dispersion (1)
Every molecule has a set number of electrons. These electrons move randomly in an electron cloud. An instantaneous dipole movement occurs when electrons gather on one side of the molecule or atom. These instant dipole movements allow for instantaneous bonds. This bond is ALWAYS present but is the weakest out of the bonds listed. Most prominent between nonpolar molecules. Increases with surface area and amount of electrons in a molecule.
Between two fully charged ions. Giving and receiving electrons. Stronger as the charges are full.
Between two atoms. Electrons are shared bwteen atoms. Atoms with a higher electronegativity will pull electrons more therefore creating a polar molecule. When a molecule shares electrons equally, it is known as a nonpolar molecule.
Covalent bonds are seen in biology as glycosidic, peptide, ester, phosphodiester, disulfide bridge bonds.
gap junction
desmosomes
tight junction
ribosome
site of protein synthesis
golgi apparatus
synthesis, modification, sorting, secretion
mitochondria
intermembrane space, outer membrane, inner membrane
cellular respiration and ATP
peroxisome
metabolic function
lysosome
storage disorder
inherited metabolic disorder and buildup of toxic materials in cells
autophagy
fuses with vesicle containing damaged organelles, which hydrolytic enzymes digest
phagocytosis
contains active hydrolytic enzymes, which digest food particles
digestive organelle
microvilli
increase cell surface area
cytoskeleton
microtubules
organelle movements
chromosome movements in cell division
cell motility
maintenance of chell shape
intermediate filaments
anchorage of nucleus + other organelles
formation of nuclear lamina
microfilaments
cytoplasmic streaming
changes in cell shape
cellular contraction
Centrosome
where microtubules are initiated
Endoplasmic Reticulum
Smooth ER
doesn't contain ribosomes
Rough ER
contains ribosomes
cell wall
maintains cell's shapes and protects cell from damage
plasmodesmata
cytoplasmic channelsd that connect cytoplasms
chloroplast
photosynthesis, converts sunlight into chemical energy
vacuole
central vacuole
repository for inorganic ions
contractile vacuole
pump excess water out
food vacuole
when cells engulf food
storage, breakdown waste, hydrolysis
progeria
a childhood disorder caused by point mutation. cells could die prematurely
nuclear membrane
chromatin
proteins
DNA
nucleolus
nonmembranous structure producing ribosomes
nuclear envelope
double membrane enclosing nucleus
Facultative Anaerobes
Can survive without O2 by fermentation
Can survive with O2
Obligate Anaerobes
Energy source is fermentation
The chemical breakdown of a substance by bacteria, yeasts, or other microorganisms. They get their energy by breaking down something else, which in this case is oxygen gas. It needs to break down oxygen gas to feed itself, that's the only way it knows how to survive or CAN survive.
Cannot survive with O2, needs to not have it, O2 is toxic to it.
Obligate Aerobes
NEEDS O2 to survive
Heterotroph
Chemoheterotroph
Needs organic compounds to survive
Photoheterotroph
Needs light to survive
Helps the cell to survive harsh environments and can live in the cell for years
Chemotroph
Needs inorganic molecules to survive
Makes organic compounds out of inorganic molecules
C,H,O,N
Stanley-Millers Hypothesis/experiment
Based on the hypothesis that early life elements were being spouted from underwater volcanoes
The elements then became chemical compounds through chemical evolution
The compounds were put into a boiling water chamber to express the hot waters due to the volcanoes in early earth.
The that vapor was put into another chamber with electricity in it, symbolizing naturally occurring electricity through lightning
Organic compounds were the result of the experiment
Etc
Fe2+
NH3
Phototroph
Needs LIGHT to survive
They are both energy sources for an autotroph, just in different ways depending on what the environment is
Synthesis of protein
Resistance to antibiotics
Polysaccharide layer that lies outside of the cell envelope
3 main domains of life
Eukarya
Anamalia
Plantaea
Fungi
Protists
Does have a nucleus where the DNA are protected, in comparison to Bacteria and Archaea, where neither of them have a nucleus
Archaea
Methanogens
They are strict obligate anaerobes
Have developed themselves to be able to survive in methane (usually in swamps)
Extremophiles
Thermophiles
Can survive in extreme temperatures
Halophiles
Can survive in highly salty environments
Presence of branched lipids in membrane
Bacteria
Does not have membrane enclosed organelles
Presence of peptidoglycan in cell wall
Presence of a cell wall
Cell wall
No branching in the lipids in membrane
Prokaryotic sex
Interact with other bacterial cells and are able to move strain of things around
Nucleoid
Plasma membrane
Lipids bilayer that surrounds the cytoplasm
Lipids have ester bonds that are created and join things together by dehydration reactions
No internal membrane bound organelles, whivh is what differs the most boldly of prokaryotes and eukaryotes, along with the absence of a nucleus
Movement
Uniquely had peptidoglycon
Lack membrane bound organelles, which are Rough ER, Golgi Apparatus, etc.
Monosaccharides
Disaccharides
Formed when a dehydration reaction joins two monosaccharides
Made up of C, H, OH and CO groups
Ketoses
When CO group is in the middle of the chain there are called
Aldoses
When the CO group is at the end of the chain the sugars
Simplest Sugars
In aqueous solutions they form rings
Glucose
Alpha Glucose
Digestable bc OH group is at the bottom
Beta Glucose
Undigestible because the OH group is at the top of the ring
Polysaccharides
Storage Polysaccharides
Glycogen
Starch
Amylose
No Branching
Differ in structure
Amylopectin
Some branching
Plants
Structure Polysaccharides
Cellulose
Made up of Beta glucose
Parallel chains held together through hydrogen bonds and form microfibrils.
DNA is made of two linked strands that wind around each other to resemble a twisted ladder, a shape known as a double helix.
DNA FUNCTION
DNA contains the instructions needed for an organism to develop, survive and reproduce.
DNA sequences must be converted into messages that can be used to produce proteins
DNA cannot function without protein and vise Versa
transmit signals to coordinate biological processes between different cells, tissues, and organs
assist with the formation of new molecules by reading the genetic information stored in DNA.
proteins provide structure and support for cells.
Immunological
DNA also contribute to the pathogenesis of autoinflammatory diseases and cancer.
Genetics
chromosomes are made up of thousands of shorter segments of DNA, called genes.
These instructions are stored inside each of your cells, distributed among 46 long structures called chromosomes.
DNA holds genetic information that determines an organisms traits
Structural
dependent on the sugar phosphate backbone and the bases.
Deoxyribonucleicacid
DNA REAL TERM
forms the structural framework of nucleic acids, including DNA and RNA.
Each strand has a backbone made of alternating sugar and phosphate groups. Attached to each sugar is one of four bases adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G) or thymine (T).
Adenine--->thymine
Cytosine--->Guanine
Sugar Phosphate Backbone
joins together nucleotides in a DNA sequence
Each Sugar attaches to a base
part of DNA that stores information
each base contains nitrogen
Each base is held together through hydrogen bonds
The sequence of amino acids linked together to form a polypeptide chain. Each amino acid is linked to the next amino acid through peptide bonds created during the protein biosynthesis process.
The primary structure of protein forms an amino acid chain.
The amino acids are stabilized by Hydrogen bonds
PROTEIN FUNCTION
cell shape and inner organization
akin to a skeleton, and they compose structural elements in connective tissues like cartilage and bone in vertebrates
Ribosomes are responsible for synthesizing proteins and rna
product manufacture and waste cleanup
breaks down proteins, the building blocks and mini-machines that make up many cell parts.
receive signals from outside the cell and mobilize intracellular response
Signals most often move through the cell by passing from protein to protein, each protein modifying the next in some way
signaling pathway
These hydrogen bonds create alpha helix and beta pleated sheets for the secondary structure
amino acids are linked together by peptide bonds, thereby forming a long chain
Hydrogen bonds between sections of the protein chain are responsible for the secondary structure of the protein
The tertiary structure of a protein refers to the overall three-dimensional arrangement of its polypeptide chain in space.
Three dimensional arrangement of its polypeptide chain
The quaternary structure of a protein is the association of several protein chains or subunits into a closely packed arrangement.
the association of several protein chains or subunits into a closely packed arrangement
