Organisms

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TRANSCRIPTION

Eukarytotes

Transcription occurs in nucleus

Trancription and translation both occur in cytoplasm

Both processes can occur simultaneously

RNA Polymerase (II in Eukaryotes) binds to DNA template with help from promoter sequence

RNA Polymerase (II) adds complementary nucleotides to RNA, 5' to 3'

Mature RNA

Ribonuclease cleaves off RNA, 5' cap is added, and poly A tail is added to RNA

Spliceosomes remove introns from RNA, bind together exons to form mature RNA strand

Chromatid

H2A,H2BH3,H4 October

histone core with attached H1 linker

Unravel to expose sequences for protein/enzyme binding

Complimentary Base pairings

Double stranded

Strands are antiparallel

Each strand acts as a new template for synthesis of new strand

Double Helix

Holds Genetic material

Holds genetic material

DNA STRUCTURE

TRANSLATION

Termination

Elongation

Large Ribosome

A- Amino Acyl Transferase

Continuous Codon Cycle being added

Adds Codons

P- Peptidyl Transferase

Creates Peptide Bonds

Creates Polypeptides

Made in a start N-C end

Synthesized by Free Ribosomes

Free Ribosome are incomplete in synthesizes

Travels Through Vesicles

Endomembrane System

To enter a ER Signal Molecule is required

SRP which Binds to SRP Receptor on free ribosomes produces proteins

Endoplasmic Reticulum

Golgi Apparatus

Secreted using Secretory Pathway

Exocitized

Outside of the cell

Can add a glycoprotein/ Known for chemical modifications

Free ribosomes are complete in synthesis

Plastids/ Chloroplast

Perioxisomes

E-Exit

Releases Codons

5' ---AUG---3'

Small Ribosome

Initiation

Prokaryotes start with a formal MET and Eukaryotes do NOT

Semi Conservative

Hydrogen Bonds

Chromosomes

Nucleosomes

DNA +histone core

eptor

Form NADPH from NADP+

GO DOWN ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN

Electrons are also fed here from water after O2 is released

Electrons get excited and get grabbed by electron acceptor molecule

Cycle continues until reached by main reaction center pair of chlorophyll a

Energy is then aborbed by the next molecule

Fluorescence

Protons cause an afterglow

When pigment molecules absorb light, electrons get excited and unstable

When electrons fall back down, they release absorbed energy

Is the first photosystem used for noncyclic flow

Transfer of electrons down the Electron transport chain

Ligand is the 1st messenger

absorbs light at 700 nm

Absorbs light at 680 nm

Reaction-center complex with light harvesting complexes

Added phosphate group to ADP

Photophosphorylation

Generates ATP

When excess NADPH is present, PSI is used to produce ATP instead, quickly

Cyclic flow

Noncyclic Flow of electrons

Photosystem I

Energy is passed between molecules after light photon is absorbed like in PSII until reaching Chlorophyll a molecules and grabbed by electron acceptor

Electrons go through electron transport chain again but to Ferredoxin

Photosystem II

Convert solar energy to chemical

Thylakoids of chloroplast

Calvin cycle

Regeneration of CO2 acceptor

Reduction

Subtopic

Outside thylakoid in stroma

Openings on leaf surface that allows CO2 to enter and O2 leaves

Light reactions

Mesophyll tissue

Stomata

Leaves

Photosynthesis

Maximum ATP produced per molecule of glucose: 30 or 32

C6H12O6 + 6O2 ----> 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy

Energy and Cell Communication

Cell Signaling

Gene Expression

Enzymes

Substrates

Cooperativity

Substrate binds to 1 of the present active sites

Binding of 1 causes change in all of the rest/ cause the rest to become active

Activators and inhibitors

Allosteric

Binds to the NON- active site

No prod can be formed from adding more substrate

Enzyme is changed shape to accomodate the allosteric inhibitor/activator

Competitive

Fights/ Blocks for active site

Product is formed from adding more substrate

G- Protein Coupled Receptor

G- Protein is coupled with GDP and rests as in an inactive state.

Ligand reaches G- Protein Receptor

GTP ("a form of ATP") binds to the G-protein receptor while the Receptor changes shape causeing the G-protein to simultaneously release GDP.

The G-protein slides across the membrane towards the enzyme Adenyl Cyclase

Once it reaches and binds to the enzyme, it uses a phosphate from GTP (ATP) to produce cAMP.

GTP reverts back to GDP using Phosphatase to break off a phosphate

Travels back across the membrane with GDP to bind to the G-Protein receptor

cAMP- Cyclic AMP

Removes phosphates using the enzyme Phosphosdiesterase

1st protein Kinase activated

cascade

2nd Protein Kinase activates

Protein Kinase 3 protein Kinase 4 Protein Kinase 5 etc

Mutation

The enzyme Phosphodiesterase doesn't stop cell growth or cAMP is still active

Cancer- continuous overgrowth of cells

Dna Transcription, Protein synthase, Cell Growth, etc is signaled to start producing

2nd Signal molecule/ messenger

Produces AMP

Cell Signaling Pathway

Step 1: Small Non-Polar molecules (Such as steroids) pass through the cell membrane

Step 2: The signal molecule reaches the receptor which binds/ conforms to the signal molecule

Step 3: The signal molecule and the receptor has confirmation to pass through the nuclear pores on the nuclear membranes

Step 4: Activates gene expression

Simple Diffusion

Cell Respiration

Glycolysis

Makes ATP through substrate level phosphorylation

Occurs in cytoplasm of cell, occurs in two phases

Through several reaction, 2 NAD+ is turned into 2 NADH and 4 ADPs are turned into 4 ATP. 2 molecules of water are also released.

Net: 2 NADH, 2 ATP

NADH formed in all reactions are used in electron transport chain

End result of glycolysis: 2 Pyruvates

Step 1: Hexokinase takes phosphate group from ATP and gives it to Glucose, to form Glucose 6-phosphate

Step 3: Phosphofructokinase gives Fructose 6-phosphate a phosphate from ATP. So far 2 ATP have been used.

Anaerobic

Lactic Acid

breaks down carbohydrate to use energy when oxygen levels are low

Anaerobic processes occur without the presence of oxygen

Aerobic

Pyruvate Oxidation

No ATP produced

Takes 2 molecules of pyruvate from glycolysis and forms 2 Acetyl CoA

2 molecules of CO2 and NADP are formed and released

Citric acid cycle (Krebs Cycle)

Electron transport chain

Net result: 26 or 28 ATP

Oxidative phosphorylation

NADH and FADH2 give up their electrons to a less electronegative carrier

Electrons move down chain to increasingly electronegative carriers, releasing energy through each transition

Electrons end up meeting oxygen at the end of the chain to form water

Energy released is used to pump protons against their concentration gradient into inner membrane space

Chemiosis

Protons are able to flow down their concentration gradient through ATP synthase, which provides the energy needed to add a phosphate group to ADP to form ATP

Occurs in inner membrane space ad miochondrial matrix

Substrate-level phosphorylation

Acetyl CoA changes oxaloacetate into citrate

Water is released, citrate is changed into isocitrate

Isocitrate is oxidized, NADH is reduced to form alpha ketoglutarate. CO2 is released

More reactions occur, end result is Malate being oxidized to form oxaloacetate and the cycle continues

Net result: 3 NADH, 1 ATP, 1 FADH2

Occurs in mitochondira

Aerobic process occur in the presence of oxygen

falls below the carbon ring

falls above the carbon ring

Building blocks of carbohydrates

Beta glucose

Chitin

Cellulose

Dextran

Glycogen

Amylose

Amylopectin

Starch

Alpha glucose

Glycosidic linkage

Structure (stability)

Disaccharide synthesis

Polysaccharide

Glucose

Fructose

Storage

Energy production, energy storage

Monosaccharides

Carbohydrates

Biomolecules

Cytoplasm

Fluidity

Aids in fluidity due to unsaturated fats. Unsaturated fats have a bent/kink tail due to cis double bonds. The kinks causes other phospholipids to be more spread out allowing proteins and other molecules to pass through easier.

Bilayer with hydrophobic tails and hydrophilic heads

Polymers

Nucleic Acids

Monomers

Nucleotides

Sugar

Nitrogenous Base

Purines

Guanine (G)

Adenine (A)

Pyrimidines

Thymine (T)

Uracil (U)

Cytosine (C)

Phosphate Group

connects nucleotides

Phosophodiesters Bonds/Linkage

Condesation/ Dehydration reactions occur

Takes away a water (H20) molecules and bonds/combines what is left

the backbone of the strands of nucleic acid. They form between the 5' and 3' ends of two different nucleotides forming an ester linkage.

Process which a polypeptide chain folds to become a active proteins in its 3D structure.

Quaternary

Two or more tertiary structures come together through interactions between the R groups

Tertiary

Polypeptide begins to fold as R groups interact with each other

Ionic bonding between charged R groups

Disulfide bridge (Only covalent bond between R groups)

Hydrophobic interactions between nonpolar R groups

Secondary

Hydrogen bonding occurs between carboxyl and amino groups within the polypeptide

Alpha Helices and Beta pleated sheets

Primary

Amino acids peptide bonded with each other to create a polypeptide chain

Protein Folding/Protein Synthesis

The mitochondria is the powerhouse of the cell which means that it produces ATP(Energy). Although, the mitochondria isn't the cite where energy is created, but rather it is harnessed.

ER

Smooth

Produces lipids and phospholipids which make up the cell membrane

Rough

Has ribosomes connected to its membrane, facilitates protein synthesis and folding

Plants

Cytoskeleton

Gives the cell structure, shape, and scaffolding.

Central Vacuole

Storage place for plant cells. Fills with water and food. When filled, creates turgor pressure within the cell, giving it a turgid structure.

Chloroplasts

Responsible for the photosynthesis

Proteins

Mitochondria

Cell wall

Bacteria

Peptidoglycan

Polysaccharide made up of amino acids that form the cell wall of many bacteria

The cell wall provides protection and a rigid outside like shell. It allows the plant to grow upright.

Organisms

Eukaryotes

Plasma Membrane

Lipids

Energy Storage

Triglycerol/Tryglyceride/Glycerol

3 Fatty Acids

Ester Linkage

Dehydration/ Condensation between the O's and C's of a fatty acid chain

Fat molecule

Saturated

Solid at room temperature

Hydrogenation

Chemical process/ reaction that bonds fats with saturated fats

No double Bonds; Every possible location is bonded with an Hydrogen

Unsaturated

Liquid at room temperature

Trans Fats

Hydrogen Bonds are on opposing vertical (diagonally) sides

Cis Fats

The Hydrogen bonds are on the same vertical side

Double Bonds

Cholesterol

Help with the fluidity of the membrane

LDL/ Low Density Lipoprotein

Bad Cholesterol

Saturated fats and trans fats can increase LDL

HDL/ HighDensity Lipoprotein

Good Cholesterol

Phospholipids

Amphiphatic Bilayer

Hydrophilic Head and Hydrophobic tail creates a membrane

Steroids

4 Fused rings of carbon and the precursor of sex hormones

Boundary of cell, separates everything within the cell and the environment

Prokaryotes

Archaea

Extremophiles

Thermophiles

Thrive in very Hot environments

Halophiles

Highly saline environments

ability to live in extreme environments

Celia and Flagella

A variety of functions across different types of cell, but are usually used for movement and mating

Genetic Material

DNA/ Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid

Mutations

Nonsense

Prematurely stops/ early stop codon

Frameshift

1-2 Nucleotides are removed/added

Missence

There's a change in the amino acid Codon

Silent

There's a change in the nucleotide, but there is no change in the codon

Dna provides directions for its own replication. It also directs synthesis RNA (mRNA) and, through mRNA, controls protein synthesis, a process gene expression

Double stranded with complementary base pairing. C-G; T-A; A-U; These are bonded through hydrogen bonds. DNA is also in the shape of a double helix.

RNA/ Ribose Nucleic Acid

Self- Replicatiing RNA helped jumpstart evolution

Single strand of DNA; takes a role in the expression of genes

Animals

Centrosomes

Aids in cell division

Peroxisomes

Have oxidated reactions (peroxides) and have very similar storage and digestive like functions. They basically help prevent oxygen in the cell.

Lysosomes

Break down materials within the cell. Digestive system of the cell. Helps with recycling materials

Ribosomes

Performs biological protein synthesis. Links amino acids together to form polypeptide chains.

Nucleus

Nucleolus

Region of nucleus where ribosome synthesis occurs

Nuclear Envelope

Separates Nucleus from cytoplasm and holds nucleus. It is the "plasma membrane" of the nucleus.

Membrane bound organelle that contains the genetic material of the cell.