作者：Amanda Mouratidis 1 月以前
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1. Sociology as a Discipline Founded by: Auguste Comte (1838) Defined focus: Social interactions and structures Academic Landscape Pre-Sociology Natural Sciences: Biology, Chemistry, Physics Humanities: Art, Philosophy, Music Sociology's Initial Reception: Rejected by natural sciences for lack of experiments Led to formation of social sciences: Sociology, Psychology, Anthropology, Political Science 2. Foundational Sociologists Auguste Comte Developed term "sociology," laying the groundwork for social research Karl Marx Emphasized conflict theory, focusing on societal power struggles and class inequality Initially seen as a social activist rather than a sociologist, gaining prominence in the 1960s Emile Durkheim Introduced functionalism, viewing society as a complex organism Key Study: Suicide (1800s), where suicide is viewed through social origins like integration and group differences (e.g., gender, wealth) Max Weber Focused on rationalization and bureaucracy Created the "ideal type" model for studying organizations, comparing traditional (mom-and-pop) to bureaucratic systems 3. Theoretical Frameworks in Sociology Functionalism (Emile Durkheim) Views society as an organism with interconnected institutions (family, religion, economy) Societal changes in one institution affect the whole system Conflict Theory (Karl Marx) Focuses on power struggles, inequality, and societal divisions (race, gender, class) Society is driven by competition for limited resources Symbolic Interactionism (Erving Goffman) Micro-level analysis of day-to-day social interactions Dramaturgical Theory: Views everyday life as a theatrical performance, where individuals play roles 4. Sociological Research Methods Surveys Large-scale data collection, statistical analysis Pros: Reach large populations quickly Cons: Risk of misinterpretation or bias Ethnography (Fieldwork/Participant Observation) Immersing oneself in a social setting Example: Venkatesh's study of Chicago street gangs Secondary Data Analysis Using pre-existing data (e.g., census) for new sociological inquiries Pros: Data already available Cons: Limited by the original data's scope 5. Ethics in Sociological Research Informed Consent: Participants must know purpose and risks, agree voluntarily No Harm: Research should not inflict harm on participants Confidentiality: Protect identities of research subjects Example of Ethical Breach: Stanford Prison Experiment (Zimbardo): Ethical issues due to potential psychological harm inflicted on participants. 6. American Sociological Association (ASA) Guidelines Ethical standards for conducting sociological research Focuses on protecting participant privacy and ensuring informed consent If you'd like, I can also create a detailed visual mind map from this breakdown! Let me know if you have specific areas you want to emphasize or further expand.
Ethical issues due to potential psychological harm inflicted on participants
importance of ethical considerations in research
ie. Feminism has influenced current social researchers, they emphasize consent, involve participation and include subjective voices
agree voluntarily
Mode
Most common number in a set
Median
Middle of the set/what divides the set into 2 groups
Mean
Sum of numbers divided by the amount of numbers in the set
Collects and reports data primarily in numerical form
Enables greater contextual details
Focuses on small groups and communities
Relies on what is seen in field setting
Systemic
Control Factors
Control Variable: A factor that is held constant to test relitative impact of the independent variable, for instance controlling for food intake in a study about how exercise impacts weight
Drawing on data whether the findings support or refute the hypthesis
Validity and Reliability
Reliability: Refers to the extent to which a measure produces consistent results (replicability)
Validity: The degree a mesure or scale accurately reflects the phenomena under study
Selecting research design
Pick a research technique to test a hypothesis
Sample
Purposive Sampling
Not representative of the population and biased
Good for population access (such as including small minority groups and marginilized communities)
Occurs when some members of the population are selected for the study
Random Sampling
Time consuming and expensive, may not include minority voices
Pros
Has a lot of variance and represents the population well, with a lack of bias
Occurs when every member of a population has the same change of being selected for a study
A selection of a larger population
Correlation and Causation
Causation: one event is the cause of another
Correlation: Relationship between two variables in which a change coincides with a change in the other
Casual Logic
Relationship between a condition or variable and a particular consequence with one event leading to the other
State a prediction about the relationship between variables (measurable trait or characteristic subject to change under different conditions)
Dependant Variable: Variable subject to influence of another variable
Independent Variable: Variable hypothesized to cause or influence another
Investigating previous research conducted by sociologists and others regarding the concepts individuals wish to study
Transforms an abstract concept into indicators that are observable and measurable, allowing researchers to assess the concept
Clearly state what you hope to investigate
Allows better understanding of our cultural practices
Limited by the original data's scope
Data already available
answer new sociological questions
Data is non reactive and does not influence what researchers find
Unintended influence of observers of experiments on subject
Control
Not exposed to Independant Variable
Experimental
Exposed to Independent Variable
Observing the phenomena being studied without participating (just observation)
Requires both insider and outsider perspective
Example
Venkatesh's study of Chicago street gangs
Immersing yourself into a particular social setting
Questionare
No response bias, limited options and flexibility
Less expensive, usually anonymous, less time consuming, online/mail form
Interview
Lengthy and expensive
versatile (on the phone, web or face to face), anonymous
Risk of misinterpretation/bias
Not all surveys are created equal (there is good and bad ones)
Reach large populations quickly
statistical analysis
where individuals play roles (front stage/back stage)
Views everyday life as a theatrical performance
comparing traditional (mom-and-pop) to bureaucratic systems
Looked at the efficiency, rationality, and effectiveness of bureaucracies in large-scale operation
Suicide (1800s)
analyzed data on suicides in 19th-century France, comparing different groups (men vs. women, rich vs. poor, etc.)
identified patterns and created theory of social integration to explain variations in suicide rates
viewing society as a complex organism
gained prominence in the 1960s
focusing on societal power struggles and class inequality
His theories resonated with the social movements of the time
Focused on social order and change
Political Science
Anthropology
Psychology
Focuses on mind and internal factors to explain behavior
Has more acceptance from natural sciences because it uses experiments
Sociology
examines external factors (family, religion, government, economy etc.) to understand behavior
Music
Philosophy
Art
Physics
Chemistry
Biology
