Categorias: Todos - inequality - sociology - structures - research

por Amanda Mouratidis 1 mês atrás

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Sociology as a Discipline

Sociology emerged as a distinct discipline in the 19th century, primarily due to the efforts of Auguste Comte, who sought to study social interactions and structures methodically. Initially, sociology faced rejection from the natural sciences for its lack of experimental methods, but it eventually helped form the broader field of social sciences, alongside psychology, anthropology, and political science.

Sociology as a Discipline

Sociology as a Discipline

1. Sociology as a Discipline Founded by: Auguste Comte (1838) Defined focus: Social interactions and structures Academic Landscape Pre-Sociology Natural Sciences: Biology, Chemistry, Physics Humanities: Art, Philosophy, Music Sociology's Initial Reception: Rejected by natural sciences for lack of experiments Led to formation of social sciences: Sociology, Psychology, Anthropology, Political Science 2. Foundational Sociologists Auguste Comte Developed term "sociology," laying the groundwork for social research Karl Marx Emphasized conflict theory, focusing on societal power struggles and class inequality Initially seen as a social activist rather than a sociologist, gaining prominence in the 1960s Emile Durkheim Introduced functionalism, viewing society as a complex organism Key Study: Suicide (1800s), where suicide is viewed through social origins like integration and group differences (e.g., gender, wealth) Max Weber Focused on rationalization and bureaucracy Created the "ideal type" model for studying organizations, comparing traditional (mom-and-pop) to bureaucratic systems 3. Theoretical Frameworks in Sociology Functionalism (Emile Durkheim) Views society as an organism with interconnected institutions (family, religion, economy) Societal changes in one institution affect the whole system Conflict Theory (Karl Marx) Focuses on power struggles, inequality, and societal divisions (race, gender, class) Society is driven by competition for limited resources Symbolic Interactionism (Erving Goffman) Micro-level analysis of day-to-day social interactions Dramaturgical Theory: Views everyday life as a theatrical performance, where individuals play roles 4. Sociological Research Methods Surveys Large-scale data collection, statistical analysis Pros: Reach large populations quickly Cons: Risk of misinterpretation or bias Ethnography (Fieldwork/Participant Observation) Immersing oneself in a social setting Example: Venkatesh's study of Chicago street gangs Secondary Data Analysis Using pre-existing data (e.g., census) for new sociological inquiries Pros: Data already available Cons: Limited by the original data's scope 5. Ethics in Sociological Research Informed Consent: Participants must know purpose and risks, agree voluntarily No Harm: Research should not inflict harm on participants Confidentiality: Protect identities of research subjects Example of Ethical Breach: Stanford Prison Experiment (Zimbardo): Ethical issues due to potential psychological harm inflicted on participants. 6. American Sociological Association (ASA) Guidelines Ethical standards for conducting sociological research Focuses on protecting participant privacy and ensuring informed consent If you'd like, I can also create a detailed visual mind map from this breakdown! Let me know if you have specific areas you want to emphasize or further expand.

American Sociological Association (ASA) Guidelines

Focuses on privacy and informed consent
Ethical standards for conducting sociological research

Ethics in Sociological Research

Disclose all sources of financial support
Aknowledge research collabs and assistance
Respect Subjects right to privacy and dignity
Maintain Objectivity and integrity in research
Example of Ethical Breach: Stanford Prison Experiment (Zimbardo)
The experiment simulated a prison environment, with participants randomly assigned as guards or prisoners.

Ethical issues due to potential psychological harm inflicted on participants

importance of ethical considerations in research

Confidentiality
Protect identities of research subjects

ie. Feminism has influenced current social researchers, they emphasize consent, involve participation and include subjective voices

No Harm
Research should not inflict harm on participants
Informed Consent
Participants must know purpose and risks

agree voluntarily

Sociological Research Methods

Research Design
Quantitative

Mode

Most common number in a set

Median

Middle of the set/what divides the set into 2 groups

Mean

Sum of numbers divided by the amount of numbers in the set

Collects and reports data primarily in numerical form

Qualitative

Enables greater contextual details

Focuses on small groups and communities

Relies on what is seen in field setting

Detailed plan or method for obtaining data scientifically
Scientific Method
Organized series of steps for conducting research

Systemic

Drawing conclusions

Control Factors

Control Variable: A factor that is held constant to test relitative impact of the independent variable, for instance controlling for food intake in a study about how exercise impacts weight

Drawing on data whether the findings support or refute the hypthesis

Collecting and analyzing data

Validity and Reliability

Reliability: Refers to the extent to which a measure produces consistent results (replicability)

Validity: The degree a mesure or scale accurately reflects the phenomena under study

Selecting research design

Pick a research technique to test a hypothesis

Sample

Purposive Sampling

Not representative of the population and biased

Good for population access (such as including small minority groups and marginilized communities)

Occurs when some members of the population are selected for the study

Random Sampling

Time consuming and expensive, may not include minority voices

Pros

Has a lot of variance and represents the population well, with a lack of bias

Occurs when every member of a population has the same change of being selected for a study

A selection of a larger population

Creating hypothesis and variables

Correlation and Causation

Causation: one event is the cause of another

Correlation: Relationship between two variables in which a change coincides with a change in the other

Casual Logic

Relationship between a condition or variable and a particular consequence with one event leading to the other

State a prediction about the relationship between variables (measurable trait or characteristic subject to change under different conditions)

Dependant Variable: Variable subject to influence of another variable

Independent Variable: Variable hypothesized to cause or influence another

Reviewing existing literature

Investigating previous research conducted by sociologists and others regarding the concepts individuals wish to study

Identifying a problem

Transforms an abstract concept into indicators that are observable and measurable, allowing researchers to assess the concept

Clearly state what you hope to investigate

Content Analysis
Systemic coding and objective recording of data guided by some rationale

Allows better understanding of our cultural practices

hypothesis
relationship between two or more variables to explain social phenomena
Secondary Data Analysis

Limited by the original data's scope

Data already available

Using pre-existing data

answer new sociological questions

Data is non reactive and does not influence what researchers find

Experiment
Hawthorne Effect

Unintended influence of observers of experiments on subject

Two groups

Control

Not exposed to Independant Variable

Experimental

Exposed to Independent Variable

Artificially created situation that allows researchers to manipulate variables
Field Research
Non Participant Observation

Observing the phenomena being studied without participating (just observation)

Ethnography (Fieldwork/Participant Observation)

Requires both insider and outsider perspective

Example

Venkatesh's study of Chicago street gangs

Immersing yourself into a particular social setting

Observing and studying social behaviour where it naturally occurs
Surveys
Types

Questionare

No response bias, limited options and flexibility

Less expensive, usually anonymous, less time consuming, online/mail form

Interview

Lengthy and expensive

versatile (on the phone, web or face to face), anonymous

Can be from observation, experiments, existing sources
Eliciting information from respondents through questions
Cons

Risk of misinterpretation/bias

Not all surveys are created equal (there is good and bad ones)

Pros

Reach large populations quickly

Large-scale data collection

statistical analysis

Theoretical Frameworks in Sociology

Symbolic Interactionism (Erving Goffman)
how individuals create meaning through communication and symbols
Dramaturgical Theory

where individuals play roles (front stage/back stage)

Views everyday life as a theatrical performance

Micro-level analysis of day-to-day social interactions
Conflict Theory (Karl Marx)
challenges the functionalist view
1960s -- influenced by social movements
Society is driven by competition for limited resources
Focuses on power struggles (inequality/social division, race, gender, class etc.)
Functionalism (Emile Durkheim)
Early 1900s to the 1950s
Societal changes in one institution affect the whole system
Views society as an organism with interconnected institutions (family religion, economy) which work together like organs in a body

Resources

Golriz, G. (2024). Sociological Methods (and interventions) [PowerPoint slides]. Queen's University. https://onq.queensu.ca/d2l/le/content/944640/viewContent/5829238/View
Introduction to sociology: Sociological theory and research methods. (2012). In Films On Demand. Films Media Group. https://fod.infobase.com/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=107659&xtid=117903

Foundational Sociologists

Max Weber
Created 'ideal type' which is a model for studying organizations

comparing traditional (mom-and-pop) to bureaucratic systems

Looked at the efficiency, rationality, and effectiveness of bureaucracies in large-scale operation

Focused on rationalization and bureaucracy
Emile Durkheim
Key Study

Suicide (1800s)

analyzed data on suicides in 19th-century France, comparing different groups (men vs. women, rich vs. poor, etc.)

identified patterns and created theory of social integration to explain variations in suicide rates

Introduced functionalism

viewing society as a complex organism

Karl Marx
Initially seen as a social activist rather than a sociologist

gained prominence in the 1960s

conflict theory

focusing on societal power struggles and class inequality

His theories resonated with the social movements of the time

Auguste Comte
Developed term sociology

Focused on social order and change

Emergence of sociology

Sociology At The Beginning
Led to creation of social sciences

Political Science

Anthropology

Psychology

Focuses on mind and internal factors to explain behavior

Has more acceptance from natural sciences because it uses experiments

Sociology

examines external factors (family, religion, government, economy etc.) to understand behavior

Rejected by natural sciences for too much reliance on probability/stats and lack of experiments
Pre-Sociology
Humanities

Music

Philosophy

Art

Natural Sciences

Physics

Chemistry

Biology

Defined focus

Social interactions and structures

Founded by

Auguste Comte (1838)