arabera Sydney Murdock 2 years ago
174
Honelako gehiago
FUNGUS-LIKE
FEED ON DEAD ORGANIC MATERIAL
EXAMPLE: SLIME AND WATER MOULDS
PLANT-LIKE
THEY CONTAIN CHLOROPHYLL
MANY CAN PHOTOSYNTHESIZE
EXAMPLE: ALGAE
ANIMAL-LIKE
PROTOZOANS
CHIEFLY MOTILE AND HETEROTROPHIC
ARE CONSIDERED ANIMAL-LIKE FOR THE WAY THEY INGEST FOOD FROM THEIR SURROUNDINGS.
EXAMPLE: AMOEBA EATING A PARAMECIUM
DIATOMS
CONVERT SILLICON INTO GLASS
VOLVOX
A LARGE COLONY OF CELLS
CILIATES
A PARAMECIUM WITH CICLIATES AROUND THE OUTSIDE
BOTH
SOCIAL STAGE
ANOTHER STAGE OF THEIR LIFE
ONE STAGE OF THEIR LIFE
ORGANOTROPH
FEEDING ORGANISMS THAT EAT FOOD AND GET THEIR ENERGY BY CONSUMING FOOD
THE PLASMODIUM CAUSING MALARIA LIVES IN BOTH THE LIVER AND THE RED BLOOD CELLS
THEY MAKE THEIR OWN FOOD USING ENERGY FROM THE SUN BY TAKING CHLOROPHYLL AND CONVERTING TO ENERGY OF MOLECULES
EXAMPLE: KELP
THEY ARE EUKARYOTIC
ALL PROTISTS ARE AQUATIC
SOME ORGANISMS HAVE VERY COMPLEX CELLS, WHILE OTHERS ARE NOT COMPLEX AT ALL
MOST SPECIES ARE UNICELLULAR, BUT SOME ARE MULTICELLULAR
IN THE UNICELLULAR VARIATION, GAS EXCHANGE WILL OCCUR THROUGH DIRECT DIFFUSION BETWEEN THE CELL BODY AND THE ENVIRONMENT
OVER 200,000 KNOWN SPECIES IN THIS KINGDOM
ORGANISMS ARE PLANT-LIKE, BUT ARE NOT PLANTS
BASIDOMYCOTA (CLUB-LIKE FUNGI)
THE LARGE CAP OR SHELF IS THE MOST IDENTIFIABLE FEATURE. UNDER THE CAP ARE A SERIES OF GILLS EACH BEARING THOUSANDS OF CLUB-LIKE REPRODUCTIVE CELLS
DECOMPOSERS
MUSHROOM, PUFFBALLS, BRACKEY FUNGI
ASCOMYCOTA (SAC-LIKE FUNGI)
INCLUDES THE STRUCTURE KNOWN AS THE ASCUS (THE SPORES ARE SAC-LIKE FUNGI FORM) AND CONTAINS THE REPRODUCTIVE SPORES OF THE ORGANISM
SOME CAUSE VARIOUS PLANT DISEASES
YEAST - IS USEFUL TO HUMANS
ZYGOMYCOTA (CASE-LIKE FUNGI)
RESEMBLE LITTLE CASES CALLED SPORANGIA (A STRUCTURE IN WHICH SPORES ARE PRODUCED) FORM AT THE TIP OF THE HYPHAE
MANY ARE PARASITES OF INSECTS
MANY ARE USED COMMERCIALLY
MOST ARE SOIL FUNGI
INCLUDES SOME FAMILIAR BREAD AND FRUIT MOLDS
REPRODUCTION CAN INVOLVE SEXUAL AND ASEXUAL STAGES
ASEXUAL
THE MYCELLIUM CAN USE MITOSIS TO PRODUCE UNICELLULAR SPORES
THE SPORES WILL BE GENETICALLY IDENTICAL TO THE MYCELLIUM
THE SPORES FALL TO THE GROUND AND PRODUCE MORE MYCELLIUM
THERE IS NEVER A DOPLOID COMPONENT AS IT STARTS MULTICELLULAR HAPLOID WITH A MYCELLIUM THAT UNDERGO MITOSIS
SEXUAL
THE MYCELLIUM OF TWO DIFFERENT SPECIES ARE DRIVEN TOGETHER
THE TWO MYCELLIUM WILL TOUCH EACH OTHER AND FUSE TOGETHER IN A PROCESS CALLED PLASMOGAMY
BECOMES ONE GIANT CELL WITH TWO NUCLEI IN IT
IN A HETEROKARYOTIC STATE
EVENTUALLY THE TWO NUCLEI WILL FUSE TOGETHER IN A PROCESS CALLED KARYOGAMY
THE ZYGOTE FORMS WHEN THESE TWO CELLS COME TOGETHER
THE BODIES OF MOST FUNGI CONSIST OF HYPHAE
HYPHAE ARE THREAD-LIKE FILAMENTS PRODUCED BY FUNGI
THE FILAMENTS BRANCH OUT AS THEY MATURE AND FORM A TANGLED MASS CALLED A MYCELIUM (KNOWN AS A NETWORK OD HYPHAE OFTEN SUBMERGED IN SOIL OR OTHER ORGANIC MATTER)
MYCELIUM ARE HAPLOID CELLS
THE STRUCTURE ALLOWS MATERIALS TO MOVE QUICKLY THROUGH THE HYPHAE
ORGANISMS THAT OBTAIN THEIR NUTRIENTS FROM DEAD ORGANIC MATTER
THEY RELEASE DIGESTIVE ENZYMES INTO THE IMMEDIATE AREA
THE ENZYMES BREAK DOWN THE ORGANIC MATTER
FUNGI ABSORB THIS DIGESTED FOOD THROUGH THEIR CELL WALLS VIA DIFFUSION
THROUGH BINARY FISSION
THEY WILL COPY THEIR GENETIC MATERIAL AND SPLIT IT IN HALF
ORGANOTROPHS
BREAKING DOWN ORGANIC MATERIAL
EXAMPLE: SULFOLOBUS WOULD BE FOUND IN THE HOT POTS OF YELLOWSTONE PARK
LITHOTROPHS
BREAKING DOWN SIMPLE CHEMICALS TO GET ENERGY
EXAMPLE: METHANOGEN THAT ARE GENERATORS OF METHANE GAS
PHOTOTROPHS
THEY USE THE ENERGY OF THE SUN
EXAMPLE: HALOBACTERIUM WHO LIVE IN HIGH CONCENTRATIONS OF SALT
MEMBRANES
MONOLAYERS
BRANCHED BY HYDROCARBONS
ETHER LINKAGE
CELL WALL IS PRESENT
NO PEPTIOGLYCAN
NO NUCLEUS OR ORGANELLES
THEY ARE FOUND EVERYWHERE
HUMANS ARE MORE IN COMMON THAN ARCHAEBACTERIA THAN REGULAR BACTERIA
MANY OF THESE SPECIES CAN LIVE IN EXTREME ENVIRONMENTS
BILLIONS OF YEARS AGO, THESE EXTREME TEMPERATURS EXISTED SO IT IS BELIEVED THAT THESE ORGANISMS ADAPTED
THE RELATIONSHIP WITH ENVIRONMENTAL OXYGEN
FACULTATIVE AEROBES
ORGANISMS THAT CAN LIVE IN THE PRESENCE OR ABSENCE OF OXYGEN
OBLIGATE ANAAEROBES
ORGANISMS THAT ARE POISONED BY OXYGEN
OBLIGATE AEROBES
ORGANISMS THAT NEED OXYGEN TO SURVIVE
BACTERIA DO NOT HAVE ANY MEMBRANE-BOUND ORGANELLES (LIKE MITOCHONDRIA)
THEY STILL NEED TO UNDERGO CELLULAR RESPIRATION TO PRODUCE ENERGY FOR VARIOUS FUNCTIONS
CELLULAR RESPIRATION OCCURS ON THE BACTERIAL PLASMA MEMBRANE
SIMPLE DIFFUSION IS ALL THAT IS NEEDED FOR GAS EXCHANGE SINCE UNICELLULAR ORGANISMS ARE IN DIRECT CONTACT WITH THEIR ENVIRONMENT
HETEROTROPH
CHEMOHETEROTROPH
PHOTOHETEROTROPH
AUTOTROPH
CHEMOAUTOTROPH
PHOTOAUTOTROPH
STAPHLO
A PREFIX THAT INDICATES A CLUSTER OF CELLS THAT CAN LOOK LIKE A BUNCH OF GRAPES
STREPTO
A PREFIX THAT INDICATES A CHAIN OF CELLS
DIPLO
A PREFIX INDICATING A PAIR OF CELLS
NUCLEIOD (CIRCULAR DNA)
BACTERIAL FLAGELLUM
PILI
PLASMID
RIBOSOMES
CYTOPLASM
PLASMA MEMBRANE
CELL WALL
CAPSULE
CONJUGATION DEFINED: THIS IS THE PROCESS BY WHICH ONE BACTERIUM TRANSFERS GENETIC MATERIAL TO ANOTHER THROUGH DIRECT CONTACT
A HOLLOW TUBE-LIKE STRUCTURE - THE PILUS CAN FORM BETWEEN TWO BACTERIAL CELLS AND A PLASMID CAN TRANSFER BETWEEN THE TWO
GENETIC MATERIAL IS THEN TRANSFERRED BETWEEN TWO INDIVIDUALS SO THIS CONJUNCTION IS CONSIDERED TO BE A FORM OF SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
THIS METHOD ALLOWS BACTERIA TO TRANSFER ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE TO ONE ANOTHER
BACTERIA IN YOUR DIGESTIVE SYSTEM HELPS YOU TO BREAK DOWN FOOD AND SYNTHESIZE CERTAIN MOLECULES LIKE VITAMIN K
THERE ARE BOTH GOOD AND BAD FORMS OF BACTERIA
BACILLUS
ROD SHAPED
SPIRILLUM
SPIRAL OR CORK-SCREW SHAPED
COCCUS
ROUND/SPHERE SHAPED
ANIMALS
1.2 MILLION DESCRIBED SPECIES
MOST REPRODUCE SEXUALLY
250,000 DESCRIBED SPECIES
REPRODUCE SEXUALLY AND ASEXUALLY
100,000 DESCRIBED SPECIES
EUKARYOTIC
REPRODUCES SEXUALLY AND ASEXUALLY
400 DESCRIBED SPECIES
10,000 DESCRIBED SPECIES
PROKARYOTIC
ALL CAN REPRODUCE ASEXUALLY
THE WHIP AND TONGUE GRAFT
THE SECTIONS ARE CUT IN SUCH A WAY THAT THE VASCULAR TISSUES WILL LINE UP AND REMAIN FUNCTIONAL (EVEN IF THEY ARE OF DIFFERENT PLANT SPECIES)
GRAFTS ARE OFTEN WRAPPED WITH TAPE OR RUBBER STRIPS TO SEAL THEM WHILE THEY HEAL
A POPULAR HORTICULTURAL TECHNIQUE WHERE TWO DIFFERENT PLANTS ARE BOUND TOGETHER TO PRODUCE DESIRED TRAITS
STRAWBERRY
STRAWBERRY STOLONS RUN ABOVE THE GROUND TO SPREAD THE PLANT
RASPBERRY BUSH
THESE NEW PLANTS DO NOT GROW FROM SEEDS, BUT ORIGINATE FROM MODIFIED STEMS THAT RUN UNDERGROUND (RHIZOMES)
SPORES
SPORES ARE REPRODUCTIVE CELLS THAT CONTAIN IDENTICAL GENETIC INFORMATION TO THE PARENT. THESE SPORANGIA HAVE TOUGH OUTER CASES TO PROTECT THE GENETIC MATERIAL INSIDE. ONCE RELEASED, A SPORANGIUM WILL GROW INTO A NEW ORGANISM IF THE CONDITIONS IT LANDS IN ARE FAVOURABLE.
THE PARENT IS PRESERVED IN THIS PROCESS
FRAGMENTATION
THE BODY OF THE PARENT BREAKS (IT FRAGMENTS) INTO TWO OR MORE PIECES WITH EACH PIECE HAVING THE ABILITY TO GENERATE THE MISSING PARTS AND FORM A NEW GENETICALLY IDENTICAL INDIVIDUAL
EXAMPLES: THE ANIMAL PHYLUM OF FLATWORMS AND THE ANIMAL SEA STAR
VEGETATION PROPAGATION
A NEW, GENETICALLY IDENTICAL PLANT IS FORMED FROM A PIECE OF ROOT, STEM OR LEAVES FROM THE PARENT PLANT.
THE PARENT PLANT IS USUALLY PRESERVED IN THE PROCESS.
EXAMPLES: A WIDE RANGE PLANTS FROM ALL PLANTAE PHYLA INCLUDING NON-VASCULAR PLANTS LIKE MOSS, VASCULAR NON-SEED PRODUCING PLANTS LIKE FERNS, GYMNOSPERMS LIKE CEDAR TREES, ANGIOSPERMS LIKE TRILLIUM
BUDDING
MITOTIC DIVISION RESULTS IN AN OUTGROWTH OR "BUD" ON THE SIDE OF THE PARENT BODY. THE BUD CONTINUES TO GROW IN SIZE, AND EVENTUALLY SEPARATES FROM THE PARENT
THE NEW INDIVIDUAL IS GENETICALLY IDENTICAL TO THE PARENT, AND THE PARENT IS PRESERVED
EXAMPLES: THE FUNGI PHYLUM OF YEASTS, AND THE ANIMAL HYDRA
BINARY FISSION
THE PARENT CELL UNDERGOES CELL DIVISION TO CREATE TWO NEW GENETICALLY IDENTICAL INDIVIDUALS
THE ORIGINAL PARENT IS LOST IN THE PROCESS
EXAMPLES: MOST MEMBERS OF THE BACTERIA KINGDOM, THE PROTIST AMOEBA AND THE PROTIST PARAMECIUM
PRODUCES A LARGE NUMBER OF OFFSPRING IN A SHORT PERIOD OF TIME
AN EXAMPLE OF THIS IS BACTERIA
Escherichia coli (E.COLI) IS AN EXAMPLE OF BACTERIA THAT CAN REPLICATE ITSELF IN UNDER 20 MINUTES IN IDEAL CONDITIONS
ONE SINGLE E.COLI CELL CAN REPLICATE INTO 2 MILLION CELLS IN UNDER 7 HOURS
THE CELLS INVOLVED IN THIS PROCESS ARE PRODUCED VIA MITOSIS
USED TO REPLICATE SOMATIC (BODY CELLS) OF THE ORGANISM
MITOSIS IS A SHORT PERIOD OF TIME IN RESPECT TO THE WHOLE CELL CYCLE
MITOSIS IS REPLICATING THE CELLS SO THAT THE DNA IS IDENTICAL
DNA CAN BE ORGANIZED INTO CONDENSED UNITS KNOWN AS CHROMOSOMES (MADE OF DNA AND PROTEIN)
THERE ARE 46 CHROMOSOMES IN THE NUCLEI
THE 46 CHROMOSOMES (WITH 46 CHROMATIDS) WILL DUPLICATE (IN INTERPHASE) AND AS A RESULT STILL STAY AS 46 CHROMOSOMES, BUT WILL NOW HAVE 92 CHROMATIDS
PMAT
TELOPHASE
CYTOKINESIS
RESPONSIBLE FOR THE FINAL SEPARATION INTO TWO CELLS BY SPLITTING THE CYTOPLASM
MEANS "TWO"
THE CHROMOSOMES ARE AT THE COMPLETE OPPOSITE ENDS
NEW NUCLEI ARE FORMING ON EACH SIDE TO MAKE THESE TWO NEW CELLS
THE NUCLEI ARE STARTING TO SURROUND THE CHROMOSOMES ON BOTH SIDES
ANAPHASE
MEANS "AWAY"
THE CHROMOSOMES ARE MOVING TO THE OPPOSITE SIDES OF THE CELL - MOVING TOWARDS THE POLES OF THE CELL
SPINDLES - FIBRES - HELP MOVE THE CHROMOSOMES TO THE ENDS
METAPHASE
MEANS "MIDDLE"
THE NUCLEUS HAS BEEN DISASSEMBLED - NO LONGER THERE
THE CHROMOSOMES LINE UP IN THE MIDDLE OF THE CELL
PROPHASE
MEANS "BEFORE"
NUCLEUS IS STILL THERE IN THIS BEGINNING PHASE
CHROMOSOMES ARE THICKENING AND VISIBLE - KNOWN AS CONDENSING
ALLOWS A SINGLE ORGANISM TO PASS ON ITS GENETIC INFORMATION FROM ONE GENERATION TO THE NEXT
THIS REPRODUCTIVE STRATEGY ONLY INVOLVES A SINGLE PARENT
THE GENETIC INFORMATION IS THEREFORE IDENTICAL TO THE PARENT ORGANISM (WITH THE EXCEPTION OF ANY MUTATIONS THAT OCCUR)
ENSURES GENETIC CONTINUITY OF THE SPECIES
RESULTS IN GENERATIONS OF ORGANISMS WITH IDENTICAL OR VERY SIMILAR TRAITS
LITTLE VARIATION IS PRESENT THROUGHOUT THE VARIOUS GENERATIONS
MOSSES ARE SEEDLESS NON-VASCULAR PLANTS
GAMETOPHYTE STAGE
THE STALK AND THE CAPSULE GROW OUT OF THE LEAFY GAMETOPHYTE TO PRODUCE THE DIPLOID - SPOROPHYTE STAGE
SPOROPHYTES PRODUCES SPORES BY MEISOS
THE CAPSURE WILL DISPERSE THE SPORES WHEN THE CONDITIONS ARE FAVOURABLE
THE SPORES ARE CARRIED BY WIND TO MOIST AREAS
THE SPORES WILL GERMINATE INTO A DEVELOPING PROTANEMA
THE PROTANEMA WILL DEVELOP INTO A HAPLOID LEAFY GAMETOPHYTE
GAMETANGIUM WILL DEVELOP AT THE TOPS OF THE MALE AND FEMALE GAMETOPHYTE
THE EGG AND THE SPERM ARE PRODUCED BY MITOSIS
THE FEMALE GAMETOPHYTE IS CALLED ARCHEGONIA
THIS PRODUCES THE EGG
A DIPLOID FERTILIZED EGG CALLED A ZYGOTE DEVELOPS BY MITOSIS INTO A SPOROPHYTE
SPOROPHYTES PRODUCE SPORES THAT WILL BE CARRIED BY THE WIND AND AGAIN LAND ON A MOIST SURFACE
THE MALE GAMETOPHYTE IS CALLED ANTHERIDIA
THIS PRODUCES SPERM
THR SPERM WILL SWIM THROUGH MOISTURE AND FERTILIZE THE EGG
ANIGIOSPERMS ARE A GROUP OF SEED-BEARING VASCULAR PLANTS
ANGIOSPERMS ARE CONSIDERED TO BE HETEROSPOROUS - BY PRODUCING TWO DIFFERENT TYPES OF SPORES (MICROSPORES AND MEGASPORES)
IN THE CARPELS (FEMALE PARTS)
A SINGLE CARPEL CONSISTS OF THE FOLLOWING 4 PARTS
OVULE
A SINGLE DIPULE SPOROPHYTE EXISTS IN THE MEGA SPOROCYTE AND DIVIDES BY MEIOSIS TO PRODUCE 4 HAPLOID MEGASPORES
ONLY ONE OF WHICH WILL SURVIVE
THE SURVIVING MEGASPORE DIVIDES BY MITOSIS TO PRODUCE SEVEN HAPLOID CELLS
ONE LARGE CENTRALLY LOCATED CELL CONTAINS 2 NUCLEI CALLED POLAR NUCLEI
ANOTHER CELL IS THE EGG
THE SEVEN CELL STRUCTURE MAKES UP THE FEMALE GAMETOPHYTE CALLED THE MEGAGAMETOPHYTE
EACH MICROSPORE WILL THEN UNDERGO A MITOSIS DIVISION AND DIFFERENTIATION TO PRODUCE A POLLEN GRAIN
A HAPLOID GRAIN IS CALLED A MICROGAMETOPHYTE
THE POLLEN GRAIN POLLUNATES THE FEMALE PARTS OF THE FLOWER BY LANDING ON THE STIGMA
THE POLLEN GRAIN GERMINATES AND A POLLEN TUBE GROWS DOWN THE STYLE UNTIL IT MEETS THE FEMALE GAMETOPHYTE
TWO SPERM FROM THE POLLEN GRAIN TRAVEL THROUGH THE POLLEN TUBE AND ENTER THE FEMALE GAMETOPHYTE
THIS IS CALLED DOUBLE FERTILIZATION
THE OTHER FERTILIZES TWO POLAR NUCLEI FORMING A TRIPLOID CELL
THE TRIPLOID CELL DEVELOPS INTO NUTRITIVE ENDOSPERM OF THE SEED
ONE FERTILIZES THE EGG FORMING A DIPLOID ZYGOTE
THE ZYGOTE DEVELOPS INTO THE EMBRYO
THE SEED GERMINATES AND WHEN THE SPORIFED MATURES, THE LIFE CYCLE BEGINS
OVARY
STYLE
STIGMA
IN THE ANTHERS (THE MALE PARTS) THERE ARE MILLIONS OF DIPLOID SPORES CALLED MICROSPOROCYTES
THE MICROSPOROCYTES DIVIDE BY MEIOSIS TO PRODUCE HAPLOID MICROSPORES
SEXUAL FERTILIZATION METHODS
CLOWNFISH GENDER CHANGE
The female clown fish is at the top of the hierarchy, so when she dies, A MALE CHANGES GENDER to female to take her place.
TREE POLLEN EXPLOSION
POLLEN from the male cones of cedar trees is RELEASED into the air to be captured by the female cones.
EARTHWORM MATING
Hermaphroditic worms COUPLE in order to fertilize the eggs that each individual carries. The sperm is deposited into the slime tube that forms around the worms, and the eggs are then fertilized after the mating has finished.
CORAL SPAWNING
EXTERNAL FERTILIZATION: The sperm and egg cells are released at the same time one night of the year based on temperature and moon cues.
SALMON SPAWNING
EXTERNAL FERTILIZATION: The female deposits her eggs in a small depression, and the male releases the sperm over the eggs.
INTERNAL
GAMETES JOIN INSIDE OF BODY
REQUIREMENTS: SPECIALIZED ORGANS AND MATING RITUALS
ADVANTAGES: GREATER CHANCE OF FERTILIZATION AND LOWER NUMBER OF GAMETES NEEDED
DISADVANTAGES: PARENTS MUST BE IN THE SAME LOCATION AT THE SAME TIME
EXAMPLES: BIRDS, REPTILES, MAMMALS, SOME FISH SPECIES
EXTERNAL
GAMETES JOIN OUTSIDE OF BODY
REQUIREMENTS: LARGE NUMBER OF GAMETES AND WATER
ADVANTAGES: PARENTS DO NOT NEED TO BE IN THE SAME LOCATION AT THE SAME TIME
DISADVANTAGES: LESS CHANCE OF FERTILIZATION
EXAMPLES: FROGS, CORALS, SPONGES, MANY FISH SPECIES
HERMAPHRODITES
WHEN BOTH MALE AND FEMALE GAMETES COME FROM THE SAME PERSON
INDIVIDUALS THAT CAN PRODUCE BOTH MALE AND FEMALE GAMETES
THIS IS MORE COMMON THAN MOST PEOPLE THINK
EXAMPLES: MOST PLANTS AND SOME ANIMALS (INVERTEBRATES) LIKE EARTHWORMS AND MOLLUSCS SUCH AS SNAILS
HERMAPHRODITIC REPRODUCTION IS SIMILAR TO ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN THAT NO NEW GENETIC MATERIAL IS INTRODUCED
THERE CAN HOWEVER BE SOME GENETIC SHUFFLING THAT CAN OCCUR TO GIVE OFFSPRING SLIGHLY DIFFERENT PLANTS THAN THE PARENT
INDIVIDUALS ARE PRODUCED FROM THE FUSION OF TWO SEX CELLS (GAMETES)
IN MOST CASES THESE GAMETES COME FROM 1 MALE AND 1 FEMALE
THE OFFSPRING ARE NOT GENETICALLY IDENTICAL TO JUST ONE OF THE PARENTS AS THE GENETICL MATERIAL COMES FROM TWO DIFFERENT SOURCES
THE COMBINATION OF GENETIC MATERIAL IS WHAT DRIVES THE VARIATION IN TRAITS THAT WE SEE IN ORGANISMS THAT USE SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
EXAMPLE: EVEN IF TWO OFFSPRING HAVE THE SAME PARENTS, THERE ARE DIFFERENCES IN THOSE INDIVIDUALS
THIS IS DUE TO THE PROCESS OE MEIOSIS FROM WHICH GAMETES ARE PRODUCED
COPIES IDENTICAL GENETIC INFORMATION
ALLOWS FARMERS AND HORTICULTURALISTS TO CLONE PLANTS WITH THE MOST DESIREABLE TRAITS ( EX. RESISTING DROUGHT AND PEST RESISTANCE)
DOUBLE
BLOOD ALWAYS STAYS ENTIRELY WITHIN THE VESSELS
HEART > BODY > HEART > LUNGS > HEART
SYSTEMATIC CIRCULATION THROUGH THE BODY
PULOMNARY CIRCULATION THROUGH THE LUNGS
A SEPARATE FLUID CALLED TISUE FLUID - BATHES THE TISSUES AND CELLS
THIS ENABLES THE HEART TO PUMP THE BLOOD AT A HIGHER PRESSURE - SO THAT IT FLOWS MORE QUICKLY
THIS MEANS THAT IT CAN DELIVER OXYGEN AND NUTRIENTS MORE QUICKLY, AND REMOVE CARBON DIOXIDE AND OTHER WASTE MORE QUICLKLY
SINGLE
FISH HAVE A CLOSED, SINGLE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
THE BLOOD FLOWS THROUGH THE HEART ONCE DURING EACH CIRCULATION OF THE BODY
HEART > ARTERIES > GILLS > VEINS > BODY TISSUES > VEINS > HEART
CLOSED
OPEN
THE ARTIC BUMBLEBEE HAS AN OPEN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
THIS MEANS THAT THE BLOOD IS NOT ALWAYS HELD WITHIN THE BLOOD VESSELS
INSTEAD THE BLOOD FLUID CIRCULATES THROUGH THE BODY CAVITY,SO THE TISSUES AND CELLS OF THE ANIMAL ARE BATHED DIRECTLY IN BLOOD
THERE IS A MUSCULAR PUMPING ORGAN MUCH LIKE THE HEART. THIS IS A LONG, MUSCULAR TUBE THAT LIES JUST UNDER THE DORSAL (UPPER) SURFACE OF THE INSECT.
BLOOD FROM THE BODY ENTERS THE HEART THROUGH PORES CALLED OSTIA
THE HEART THEN PUMPS THE BLOOD TOWARDS THE HEAD BY PERISTALSIS
AT THE FORWARD END OF THE HEART (NEAREST THE HEAD), THE BLOOD SIMPLY POURS OUT INTO THE BODY CAVITY.
All FOUR MAIN TYPES of animal tissues (epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous tissue) are associated with the vessels that carry the blood and other components
Subtopic
The outer layer of both vessel types is made up of connective tissue, comprised mostly of COLLEGEN FIBRES
This layer ADDS STRUCTURE TO THE VESSELS, but also CONNECTS THEM TO SURROUNDING TISSUE and HOLDS THEM IN PLACE
The connective tissue helps keep the vessels positioned for OPTIMAL blood flow
THE SMOOTH MUSCLE LAYER IN VESSELS IS THE MAIN SUPPORT, AND REGULATES THE DIAMETER OF THE VESSELS.
The diameter of the vessels plays an IMPORTANT ROLE role in BLOOD PRESSURE
THE SMOOTH MUSCLE IS THICKER IN THE ARTERY
This is because arteries need to carry pressurized blood from the heart they would balloon if the muscle wasn’t thick enough
THE ENDOTHELIUM (THIN, INNER LAYER OF BLOOD VESSELS) IS MADE UP OF SPECIALIZED EPITHELIAL CELLS THAT LINE THE INSIDE OF BLOOD VESSELS
THEY PLAY A KEY ROLE IN CONTROLLING BLOOD FLOW
THEY WILL SECRETE SUBSTANCES THAT DILUTE (become wider or more open) VESSELS and PRODUCE PROTEINS THAT PREVENT UNWANTED BLOOD CLOTS AND OTHER PROTEINS THAT STOP BLEEDING IF THE VESSEL IS DAMAGED.
These specialized functions make this layer a PERFECT INTERFACE between THE BLOOD AND THE VESSELS
The layer is only ONE CELL THICK, so oxygen and other small molecules can diffuse through.
THEY ARE "LIKE HERBS"
SMALL, SOFT, FLEXIBLE
TYPICALLY DIE DOWN TO THE ROOT
OR COMPLETELY DIE AFTER ONE GROWING SEASON
Examples: Herbs, Flowers and Broccoli
WILT - DEFINED AS ANY NUMBER OF DISEASES THAT AFFECT THE VASCULAR SYSTEMS OF PLANTS
WILT IS CAUSED BY DIFFERENT PATHEOGENIC (CAUSING DISEASE) FUNGI SPECIES
A PHYTOPATHOLOGIST - A BIOLOGIST THAT STUDIES PLANT DISEASES AND THEIR CAUSES, PROCESSSES AND EFFECTS
TWO EXAMPLES
FUSARIUM WILT
VERTICILLIUM WILT
THAT CAN TAKE FOOD AND WATER FROM ONE PART OF A PLANT TO ANOTHER PART OF A PLANT
ALLOW THEM TO SPREAD FASTER AND FASTER
ALLOW THEM TO STORE FOOD
ALLOWS FOR PLANTS TO GROW LARGER
They have some distinct DISADVANTAGES when compared to the vascular plants
THEY DO NOT HAVE PHLOEM
SUGARS CANNOT BE TRANSPORTED AROUND THE PLANT
Each cell NEEDS the ability to undergo photosynthesis to create the sugars it requires
THESE PLANTS DO NOT HAVE LEAVES
THEY DO NOT HAVE XYLEM
THEY MUST BE LOCATED IN DAMP AREAS
Instead of using roots to draw up moisture, each cell obtains its water through osmosis directly from the environment
Certain plants do not have any vascular tissue
Examples: Mosses, Liverworts and Hornworts.
INSIDE THE LEAVES
WATER IS DRAWN OUT OF THE XYLEM CELLS TO REPLACE THE WATER LOST THROUGH TRANSPIRATION
BECAUSE OF THE COHESIVE NATURE OF WATER - ALSO PULLS THE WATER THROUGH THE PLANT AS WATER LEAVES THE XYLEM AND MOVES INTO THE LEAF AND CONTINUES TO PULL WATER MOLECULES BEHIND IT
ROOTS HAVE ROOT HAIRS GIVING THEM A LARGE SURFACE AREA FOR WATER ABSORPTION
WATER PASSES IN FROM THE SOIL BY OSMOSIS
PASSING DOWN THE CONCENTRATION GRADIENT
INTO THE ROOT HAIR CELL'S CYTOPLASM
THEN MOVING ONTO THE XYLEM VESSELS
WATER MOVES THROUGH THE XYLEM VESSELS FROM THE ROOT TO THE STEM TO THE LEAF
TRANSPIRATION AT THE LEAF CAUSES A TRANSPIRATION PULL AND BECAUSE WATER MOLECULES ARE COHESIVE, WATER IS PULLED UP THROUGH THE PLANT
IF THE TRANSPIRATION RATE INCREASES, THEN THE WATER ABSORPTION BY THE ROOT ALSO INCREASES
PHYSICAL FACTORS AFFECTING THE TRANSPIRATION RATE
IF THE LEAF IS FOLDED OR FLAT
HOW LARGE IS THE LEAF SURFACE AREA
THE NATURE OF THE GUARD CELLS
HOW MANY STOMATA DOES IT HAVE
DOES IT HAVE A WAXY CUTICLE
THE TRANSPIRATION RATE IS NOT CONSTANT - MANY ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS AFFECT IT
LIGHT INTENSITY
HUMIDITY
WIND
TEMPERATURE
A SUCTION PRESSURE IS CREATED
DRAWS UP THE WATER THROUGH THE PLANT
RESULTING IN THE TRANSPIRATION PULL
A TYPE OF WATER CONDUCTING CELL FOUND IN THE XYLEM TISSUE OF PLANTS THAT DIES WHEN IT REACHES MATURITY
VESSEL ELEMENTS
Vessel elements are PITTED on the sides, and this allows the xylem sap to move laterally to other elements
ONLY FOUND IN ANGIOSPERMS (FLOWERING PLANTS)
ONCE CELL TYPE FOUND IN THE WATER CONDUCTING TISSUE OF FLOWERING PLANTS
In less complex organisms, such as sponges, the oxygen can diffuse directly from the surroundings into the cells.
EXAMPLE: The Green Sponge
Diffusion is used to move particles from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration.
It also allows for the waste gas CO2 to be removed from the body.
THE GOAL IS TO GET OXYGEN INTO THE BLOOD AND CARBON DIOXIDE OUT AS QUICKLY AS POSSIBLE
BEING MOIST HELPS DISSOLVE THE GASES AND SPEED UP THE EXCHANGE
DIFFUSION HAPPENS QUICKLY WHEN THERE IS LOTS OF GAS IN ONE PLACE AND NOT VERY MUCH IN THE OTHER
THIS IS CALLED THE CONCENTRATION GRADIENT
THE BLOOD NEEDS TO BE TAKEN AWAY FROM THE EXCHANGE AREA QUICKLY SO THAT YOU MAINTAIN THE CONCENTRATION GRADIENT BETWEEN THE TWO AREAS
THE BLOOD TRAVELS VERY CLOSE TO THE EXCHANGE SURFACE TO MAXIMIZE FUSION
INTERNAL RESPIRATORY SYSTEMS
INTERNALIZING
The specialized tissues and structures mentioned above allow gas exchange to be internalized within more complex animals such as HUMANS.
INTERNALIZING THE EXCHANGE ALLOWS ANIMALS TO GROW MUCH LARGER as they DO NOT NEED TO DEPEND ON DIFFISION ON THE SURFACE OF THE BODY
VENTILATION
Is the PROCESS USED TO DRAW THE AIR INTO THE BODY
This process requires a SERIES OF STRUCTURES to DIRECT THE OXYGEN containing air TO THE LOCATION OF THE AIR EXCHANGE
PROCESS
Starting from the mouth and nose
The air moves down through the trachea or windpipe, and into the branches of the right and left bronchi
The Bronchi then DIVIDE into smaller branches called bronchioles, which TERMINATE at the ALVEOLI
The alveoli have thin walls that are surrounded by tiny blood vessels
The air is in very close proximity to the vessels, allowing diffusion between the small air sacs and the blood to occur
Once the oxygen IS IN the blood vessels, it still needs to get to the cells where it is needed for cellular respiration
THE BLOOD
BLOOD CAPILLARY
A minute VESSEL whos walls act as a SEMIPERMEABLE MEMBRANE FOR GAS AND MATERIAL EXCHANGE
EACH CELL IS NEVER TOO FAR IN LOCATION FROM A BLOOD CAPILLARY
This allows the O2 from the red blood cells to diffuse across the semipermeable membrane of the vessels, through the cell membrane, and into the cell
CONNECTS ALL THE SYSTEMS IN THE BODY TOGETHER BY BRINGING THE NEEDED OXYGEN AND NUTRIENTS TO THE CELLS
Now that the OXYGEN has DIFFUSED into the bloodstream, it will associate with the RED BLOOD CELLS and be carried throughout the body
IS CONNECTIVE TISSUE
Through these alveoli that THE FIRST STAGE of the gas exchange occurs.
The O2 DIFFUSES from THE BLOODSTREAM INTO THE CELLS
VENTILATION brings O2 into the lungs where the gas exchange occurs between the ALVEOLI and THE BLOODSTREAM
Gas exchange in larger animals such as humans occurs in TWO LOCATIONS
THE TOTAL SURFACE AREA FOR A HUMAN SET OF LUNGS
IS ABOUT 75 METRES SQUARED
AS BIG AS A BADMINTON COURT AND ALL PACKED WITHIN YOUR CHEST
AMPHIBIAN
HAS LUNGS BUT CAN GET OXYGEN THROUGH THEIR MOIST PERMEABLE SKIN AS WELL
INSECT
USES A SYSTEM OF TUBES FOR EXCHANGING GASES
HAVE THEIR GILLS ON THE OUTSIDE
FISH
FISH HAVE INTERNAL GILLS TO GET OXYGEN OUT OF THE WATER AS THEY SWIM ALONG
The BIGGER the SURFACE AREA the FASTER THE DIFFUSION OF GASES CAN OCCUR
MAMMAL
ALL MAMMALS HAVE LUNGS IN ORDER TO EXCHANGE GASES BETWEEN THE BLOOD AND THE ATMOSPHERE
AEROBIC CELLULAR RESPIRATION
In EUKARYOTE CELLS (membrane-bound organelles such as Mitochondria)
CELLULAR RESPIRATION
3 MAJOR STEPS
ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN
WE ARE IN THE MITOCHONDRIA
WE DO REQUIRE OXYGEN FOR THIS STEP
A VERY COMPLICATED PROCESS
ELECTRONS ARE TRANSFERRED FROM THE NADH AND THE FADH TO SEVERAL ELECTRON CARRIERS
USED TO CREATE A PROTON GRADIENT
THE PROTONS ARE USED TO POWER THE ENZYME CALLED ATP SYNTHASE
THIS ENZYME TAKES PHOSPHATES AND ADDS THEM TO ADP WHICH MAKES ATP
OXYGEN IS THE FINAL ACCEPTOR OF THESE ELECTRONS
THE ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN PRODUCES A LOT OF ATP COMPARED TO THE OTHER TWO STEPS
CREBS CYCLE
ALSO KNOWN AS THE CITRIC ACID CYCLE
WE ARE INVOLVED IN THE MITOCHONDIRA
THIS STEP REQUIRES OXYGEN
THE PYRUVATE THAT WAS MADE IS NOW CONVERTED AND WILL BE OXIDIZED
CARBON DIOXIDE IS PRODUCED
WE PRODUCE 2 ATP, 6 NADH, AND 2 FADH
FADH IS ALSO A COENZYME AND IT WILL ALSO ASSIST IN TRANSFERRING ELECTRONS TO MAKE EVEN MORE ATP
GLYCOLISIS
TAKES PLACE IN THE CYTOPLASM
DOES NOT REQUIRE OXYGEN
GLUCOSE IS CONVERTED INTO A MORE USABLE FORM CALLED PYRUVATE
REQUIRES A LITTLE ATP ENERGY TO GET STARTED
THE NET YIELD IS APPROX. 2 ATP MOLECULES AND 2 NADH MOLECULES
NADH IS A COENZYME THAT HAS THE ABILITY TO TRANSFER ELECTRONS
ATP ENERGY
A TYPE OF NUCLEIC ACID
ACTION PACKED WITH THREE PHOSPHATES
WHEN THE CHEMICAL BOND THAT HOLDS THAT THIRD PHOSPHATE IS BROKEN, IT RELEASES A GREAT DEAL OF ENERGY AND IS THEN CONVERTED TO ADP (D = TWO)
CELLULAR RESPIRATION BREAKS GLUCOSE
The process of PRODUCING CELLULAR ENERGY FROM GLUCOSE INVOLVING OXYGEN.
Energy is released when glucose molecules react with oxygen to form CO2 and water.
The energy that is released is stored in molecules called adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which CAN THEN BE USED BY CELLS for their ENERGY-REQUIRING PROCESSES such as GROWTH and MOVEMENT
C6H12O + 6O2 > 6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP
REACTANTS (INPUTS) ARE ON THE LEFT SIDE AND PRODUCTS (OUTPUTS) ARE ON THE RIGHT SIDE OF THE EQUATION
GLUCOSE + OXYGEN > CARBON DIOXIDE + WATER + ENERGY
ADIPOSE TISSUE
STORE FAT MOLECULES
AREOLAR
FILLS THE SPACE INSIDE THE ORGANS
GEL-LIKE WITH BOTH ELASTIC AND NON-ELASTIC FIBRES
CARTILAGE
PROTECTS BONES BY PREVENTING THEM FROM RUBBING AGAINST EACH OTHER
TOUGH, BUT FLEXIBLE TISSUE
LIGAMENT
LIGAMENTS FUNCTION AS A CONNECTION BETWEEN BONES.
THEY ARE FIBROUS AND STRETCHY
BONE
THE BONE CELLS SECRETE CALCIUM THAT HARDENS THE BONE AND SUPPORTS THE MAIN ORGANS OF THE BODY
BONE CELLS ARE SOLID
BLOOD
CONTAINS RBC, WBC AND PLATELETS THAT TRANSPORT GASES AND OTHER MATERIALS TO DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE BODY
BLOOD HAS A FLUID MATRIX
THERE ARE THREE TYPES OF MUSCLE TISSUE
CARDIAC
THE CARDIAC OR HEART MUSCLES ARE INVOLUNTARY MUSCLE CELLS THAT CONTRACT AND RELAX THROUGHOUT LIFE
THEY ARE CYLINDRICAL, BRANCHED AND UNI-NUCLEATED
SMOOTH
PROVIDES INVOLUNTARY MOVEMENTS SUCH AS THE CONTRACTION OF WALLS
THEY LINE THE WALLS OF THE HOLLOW STRUCTURES OF THE BODY
SMOOTH MUSCLE CELLS ARE FOUND IN THE INTESTINES and BLOOD VESSELS
THEY ARE SPINDLE-SHAPED, FLAT, POINTED AT BOTH THE ENDS AND BROAD AT THE MIDDLE
SKELETAL
HELPS IN LOCOMOTION AND OTHER VOLUNTARY BODY MOVEMENTS
IT IS MADE OF LONG FIBRES with ALTERNATE LIGHT AND DARK BANDS or STRIATIONS, SO SKELETAL MUSCLES are also called STRIATED MUSCLES
EXTENDS AND FORMS SPECIALIZED CELL PARTS known as DENDRITES AND AXONS
This is NERVE CELLS that help you to RETRACT YOUR HAND WHEN YOU TOUCH A THORN
NERVE CELLS CARRY MESSAGES
THE DENDRITES BRING SIGNALS TO THE CELL BODY and THE AXON TRANSMITS THE INFORMATION TO THE DENDRITE of ANOTHER CELL
THE NERVE IMPULSES ALLOW US TO MOVE OUR HAND WHEN WE WANT TO
THE BRAIN, SPINAL CORD, AND NERVES ARE ALL COMPOSED OF NERVOUS TISSUE
SUBDIVIDED INTO 4 GROUPS BASED ON THE SHAPE AND FUNCTION OF THEIR CELLS
CUBOIDAL
AIDS IN ABSORPTION AND PROVIDES MEHANICAL SUPPORT
FORMS THE LINING OF KIDNEY TUBULES AND IS SHAPED LIKE A CUBE
COLUMNAR
ACTS AS AN IMPERMEABLE BARRIER AGAINST ANY BACTERIA AND IS PERMEABLE TO ANY UNNECESSARY IONS.
IT IS TALL AND SHAPED LIKE A COLUMN
STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS
PROTECTS AREAS SUBJECT TO ABRASION AND IS FOUND IN THE SKIN
IT IS MULTILAYERED
SIMPLE SQUAMOUS
Located in the LINING of the ALVEIOLI - allows transport of SMALL MOLECULES ACROSS THE MEMBRANE
IT IS EXTREMELY THIN, FLAT, AND SINGLE LAYERED
HOW DOES THE LEAF PREVENT UNWATED INRUDERS LIKE BACTERIA FROM GETTING IN?
Above the PALISADE MESOPHYLL and Below the SPONGY MESOPHYLL, are EPIDERMIS CELLS that produce a WAXY COATING called the CUTICLE.
THIS CUTICLE SEALS UP THE LEAF SO THEY ONLY WAY IN AND OUT IS THROUGH THE STOMATA. (Regulated through the Guard Cells)
The PARTS OF A PLANT work like a FACTORY to GET ALL THE PARTS INTO ONE PLACE so PHOTOSYNTHESIS CAN TAKE PLACE
WATER
WATER COMES UP THROUGH THE ROOTS AND STEM AND ENTERS THE LEAF THROUGH A VASCULAR BUNDLE
THE VASCULAR BUNDLE CONTAINES A HOLLOW TUBE FOR WATER TRANSPORT CALLED THE XYLEM - THE VASCULAR BUNDLE SPREADS OUT TO FORM VEINS
CARBON DIOXIDE
THE BOTTOM OF THE LEAF HAS LITTLE PORES CALLED STOMATA WHICH OPEN UP SO CARBON DIOXIDE CAN DIFFUSE INTO THE LEAF. (Controlled by the Guard cells that open up to allow Carbon Dioxide in, and close to prevent water from escaping).
THE CARBON DIOXIDE ENTERS THROUGH THE SPONGY MESOPHYLL (at the bottom of the leaf) and heads up to the PALISADE LAYER for PHOTOSYNTHESIS
AS LEAVES ARE THIN, THE CARBON DIOXIDE DOES NOT HAVE FAR TO TRAVEL
SUNLIGHT
THE TOP OF THE LEAF IS EXPOSED TO THE MOST LIGHT, SO THE SPECIALIZED CELLS FOR TRAPPING LIGHT ARE LOCATED AT THE TOP
Most leaves have a LARGE SURFACE AREA to TRAP AS MUCH SUNLIGHT AS POSSIBLE
The calls are called PALISADE MESOPHYLL
THESE CELLS ARE PACKED FULL OF CHLOROPHYLL
IMPORTANT INFO
AQUATIC PLANTS have special modifications that enable them to live in aquatic environments.
AQUATIC PLANTS have most of their stoma on the upper surface of the leaves to allow gas exchange with the environment
AQUATIC PLANTS have a modified tissue called aerenchyma, which is loosely packed parenchyma cells found in leaves, stems, and other structures. It allows the plants to float on water.
VEINS are the bundles of vascular tissue that allow the transport of water and dissolved nutrients throughout the plant
STOMA are pores that allow gas exchange between the atmosphere and the inner tissues of the leaf
GUARD CELLS control the opening of the pores
The cells of the upper and lower EPIDERMIS (the OUTER CELL LAYER of the PLANT, it protects WATER LOSS and PROTECTS THE INNER TISSUES) are tightly packed to provide protection to the delicate tissues underneath
The PALISADE MESOPHYLL is composed of cells that are tightly packed and elongated in order to capture as much energy from the Sun as possible. These cells contain a high number of CHLOROPLASTS (Chlorophyll containing organelle found in PHOTOSYNTHETIC PLANTS & ANIMALS).
The cells of the SPONGY MESOPHYLL are loosely packed to allow air to circulate around them to facilitate gas exchange. The term mesophyll simply means inner or middle tissue.
GUARD CELLS
Guard Cells - Two kidney shaped cells that control the opening and closing of the stomata.
IF THE GUARD CELLS ARE FILLED WITH WATER, THAT MEANS THE GUARD CELLS ARE TURGID AND THE STOMATA IS NOW OPEN.
WATER ENTERS AND EXITS THE GUARD CELLS BY OSMOSIS
STOMA
CO2 DIFFUSES INTO THE LEAF THROUGH THE STOMATA
FOR A STOMATA TO CLOSE, WATER NEEDS TO BE LOST FROM THE GUARD CELLS
WATER WILL MOVE FROM A HIGH TO LOW CONCENTRATION BY OSMOSIS
AFTER WATER HAS LEFT THE GUARD CELLS, THE GUARD CELLS WILL THEN BECOME FLACCID.
WHEN THE GUARD CELLS BECOME FLACCID > THE STOMATA IS IN A CLOSED POSITION
THE MAJORITY of stomata are located on the LOWER EPIDERMIS OF THE LEAF where they are PROTECTED from the SUN
AS A RESULT > LESS WATER EVAPORATION will occur through these shaded openings
Stoma - plural is stomata. A small opening or pore that allows gas exchange.
VEIN
Vein - A bundle of vascular tissue that transports water and nutrients to and from the leaf.
SPONGY MESOPHYLL
Spongy Mesophyll - Loosely packed cells with a large amount of airspace surrounding them. This airspace allows for gas exchange to occur between the mesophyll cells and the atmosphere through the pores.
PALISADE MESOPHYLL
Palisade Mesophyll - Elongated and closely packed cells that contain many chloroplasts. This is where the majority of photosynthesis occurs, as it has access to the light.
LOWER EPIDERMIS
Lower Epidermis - Single layer of tightly packed cells with a thin waxy coating called a cuticle. The cuticle prevents water loss and creates a physical barrier to protect against insects and microorganisms. This layer contains pores that allow CO2 to enter the leaf and O2 to exit.
UPPER EPIDERMIS
Upper Epidermis - Single layer of tightly packed cells with a thin waxy coating called a cuticle. The cuticle prevents water loss and creates a physical barrier to protect against insects and microorganisms. These cells do not contain chloroplasts, so the layer is transparent and allows light to pass through.
The MAIN LOCATION of the gas exchange is IN THE LEAVES of the VASCULAR PLANT
The tissues involved include cells of SPECIFIC STRUCTURE and SHAPE
THIS STRUCTURE ALLOWS THE PROCESS TO WORK SO EFFICIENTLY
Within each leaf, you will find VARIOUS LAYERS OF GROUND TISSUE SPECIALIZED FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS
The arrangement of these layers ensures that all the reactants are where they need to be
THERE ARE TWO TYPES OF PLANT TISSUES
PERMANENT TISSUES
COMPLEX PERMANENT TISSUE
A COMBINATION OF TWO OR MORE SIMPLE TISSUES
EPIDERMAL CELLS
Important for INCREASING THE AREA IN ROOT HAIRS
TO INCREASE ABSORPTION
IN LEAVES THE SMALL PORES CALLED STOMATA ARE GUARDED BY SPECIALIZED EPIDERMAL CELLS CALLED GUARD CELLS
UNIQUE CELLS OF A DIFFERENT SHAPE THAT CONTAIN CHLOROPLATS NEEDING FOR EXCHANGING GASES WITH THE ATMOSPHERE
WAX PALM HAS COMMERCIAL VALUE (Ex. SHOE POLISH)
CAN BE ONE TO MULTI-CELL LAYERS THICK
THIS IS TO AVOID LOSS OF WATER IN HOT WEATHER CONDITIONS (Multi-cell Layers) and ABSORBING AS MUCH WATER AS POSSIBLE (Like a Sponge)
CUTIN is a FATTY SUBSTANCE SECRETED by MOST EPIDERMAL CELLS FORMS A WAXY, PROTECTIVE LAYER CALLED THE CUTICLE
CUTICLE PROVIDES RESISTANCE TO BACTERIA AND OTHER DISEASE CAUSING ORGANISMS
LOSS OF WATER = THICKNESS OF CUTICLE LAYERS
PHLOEM
CAN TRANSPORT WATER UP AND DOWN
Derived from the GREEK WORD BARK
APPEARANCE
A MASHUP OF 4 TYPES OF CELLS
PHLOEN PARENCHYMA
USED FOR FOOD STORAGE
ALL THE ELEMENTS (EXCEPT THE FIBRES) ARE ALIVE
COMPANION CELLS
PHLOEM FIBRES
SIEVE ELEMENTS
TRANSPORT MAINLY HAPPENS THROUGH THE SIEVE TUBES
LACK A NUCLEUS AND RELY ON COMPANION CELLS FOR MATURITY
FOUND IN ANGIOSPERMS AND GYMNOSPERMS
PART OF THE "KITCHEN" OF THE PLANT (in the LEAVES
PART OF THE PLUMBING SYSTEM OF THE PLANT
CARRIES DISSOLVED FOOD PARTICLES THROUGHOUT THE PLANT
XYLEM
CAN ONLY TRANSPORT WATER UPWARD AND OCCASSIONALLY SIDEWAYS
COMPOSED of a THICK BUNDLE OF PIPES RUNNING DOWN the MAIN ACCESS OF STEMS AND ROOTS
Derived from the GREEK WORD XYLON > Meaning WOOD
THE PLUMBING SYSTEM OF THE PLANT
CARRIES WATER AND OTHER DISSOLVED SUBSTANCES
CONSISTS OF
VESSELS
TRACHEIDS
Has a SMALLER DIAMETER than VESSELS
NO PERFORATIONS (VESSELS HAVE PERFORATIONS ALL OVER)
LESS EFFICIENT THAN VESSELS IN TRANSPORTING WATER
SHORTER IN LENGTH (VESSELS ARE LONGER)
FOUND IN ALL VASCULAR PLANTS
Ex: Plants with DUCTS OR TUBES for TRANSPORTATION
TRACHEARY ELEMENTS
LONG, TUBE-LIKE ELONGATED CELLS
RESPONSIBLE FOR TRANSPORT OF WATER AND MINERALS
FIBRES
HELPS IN SUPPORT
PARENCHYMA CELLS
STORES FOOD AND HELPS IN SIDEWAYS CONDUCTION OF WATER
SIMPLE PERMENANT TISSUE
SCLERENCHYMA
MOSTLY DEAD AT MATURITY
Made up of SCLERENCHYMA Cells
Have THICK, TOUGH, SECONDARY WALLS EMBEDDED WITH THE SPECIAL HARDNESS providing LIGNEN
LIGNEN MAKES CELLS SUPER TOUGH
FOUND IN THE HARD COVERING OF NUTS
FOUND IN THE VEINS OF FLOWERS
Example: THE HUSK OF A COCONUT
COLLENCHYMA
ARE LIVING CELLS
Made up of COLLENCHYMA Cells
Have THICKER WALLS
UNEVEN WALLS that are PLIABLE and STRONG
Very LESS INTERCELLULAR SPACE
PROVIDE FLEXIBILITY AND SUPPORT TO THE PLANT
PARENCHYMA
Found in MOST of THE EDIBLE FRUIT ex. APPLES
HYBRID VARIETIES
NO PUSH
When the cells are LOOSELY PACKED TOGETHER WITH AIR SPACES
RESULTS IN AERENCHYMA
Example: In Water Lilies - helps them to float on water and gives the SUBMERGED PART of the Plant ACCESS TO AIR
NO CHLOROPLAST
WILL NOT CARRY OUT PHOTOSYNTHESIS
WILL STORE FOOD AND WATER INSTEAD
ADD CHLOROPLAST
CARRY OUT PHOTOSYNTHESIS
RESULTS IN CHLORENCHYMA
Made up of Paenchyma cells
The MOST ABUNDENT cell type
They get PACKED up nicely side by side
Flatten at the point of CONTACT
The VACUOLES are LARGE and CONTAIN SOME SECRETIONS (Starch, oils etc.)
MERISTEMATIC TISSUES
Have very SMALL OR NO VALUOLE AT ALL
As the cells MATURE, the VACUOLE GROWS TO DIFFERENT SHAPES AND SIZE depending on the NEED OF THE CELL
THE VACUOLE MAY FILL 95% OR MORE OF THE CELL'S TOTAL VOLUME
THE INTERCALARY MERISTEM
Found at the BASE of the leaves or the internodes of the twigs
Allow for RAPID STEM ELONGATION
Example: Bamboo Plant
LATERAL MERISTEM
Accounts for SECONDARY GROWTH in Plants
SECONDARY GROWTH IS HORIZONTAL GROWTH
Example: The growth of a tree trunk in Girth
INCREASES THE WIDTH of the PLANT
THE APICAL MERISTEM
INCREASES THE LENGTH of the PLANT
ARE UNDIFFERENTIATED
Meaning a huge urge to CONTINUOUSLY DIVIDE
As this divide continues, some of them become SPECIALIZED
Some then Differentiate into PRIMARY MERISTEMS which can then differentiate into SECONDARY MERISTEMS
Cells will DIVIDE and then BECOME SPECIFIC for a PARTICULAR FUNCTION
DIFFERENTIATION
Defined As: The process of taking up a permanent SHAPE, SIZE AND FUNCTION.
Responsible for UNILATERAL GROUP (which is growth in one direction) which makes the plant SHOOT UP or SHOOT DOWN
Found in THE STEM or THE ROOTS
This VERTICAL GROWTH is also called PRIMARY GROWTH
Since the Root Meristem goes into the soil and gets DIRTY, it has a PROTECTION for ITSELF called the ROOT CAP
Usually present in the ROOTS
Usually present in the TIPS OF THE SHOOTS
RESPONSIBLE FOR GROWTH
GROWTH CAN BE WITHER VERTICAL OR HORIZONTAL
CONSIST OF SMALL DENSLEY PACKED THIN WALLS CELLS THAT KEEP DIVIDING TO PRODUCE NEW CELLS
LACK ONE MAJOR ORGANELLE
THE CENTRAL VACUOLE
MERISTEMATIC DOES NOT REQUIRE STORAGE OF WATER OR SUPPORT
HAVE A HUGE NUCLEUS
FOUND IN THE REGION WHERE THE PLANTS ACTIVE GROW
MOST ACTIVE
EVER GROWING
FEARLESS
TIRELESS
THE PROGRESSION OF CELL ORGANIZATION
Most vascular plants are COMPOSED OF TWO MAIN ORGAN SYSTEMS
COMPRISED OF THREE MAIN TISSUE SYSTEMS
VASCULAR TISSUE SYSTEM
PHLOEM TISSUE
XYLEM TISSUE
TRANSPORT OF FOOD
TRANSPORT OF WATER AND MINERALS
GROUND TISSUE SYSTEM
SCLERENCHYMA TISSUE
COLLENCHYMA TISSUE
PARENCHYMA TISSUE
SUPPORT
REGENERATION
FOOD STORAGE
DERMAL TISSUE SYSTEM
COMPONENT TISSUES
PERIDERM (in older stems and roots)
EPIDERMIS
PREVENTION OF WATER LOSS
PROTECTION
ROOT SYSTEM
ABSORPTION OF WATER AND MINERALS
ANCHORAGE
Comprised of what is BELOW THE GROUND including ALL ROOT MATERIAL
SHOOT SYSTEM
FUNCTION
STORAGE
TRANSPORT OF FOOD AND WATER
Comprised of the ORGANS FOUND ABOVE THE GROUND
Includes: STEMS, LEAVES, FRUIT AND FLOWERS
CELLS>TISSUES>ORGAN>ORGAN SYSTEMS>ORGANISM
PTERIDOPHYTES (Ferns)
BRYOPHYTES (Mosses)
GYMNOSPERMS (Pines, Ginkos)
FLOWERING PLANTS - ANGIOSPERMS
ABOUT 2% OF ALL FLOWERING PLANTS DO NOT FIT THE CLASSIFICATION OF EITHER MONOCOTS OR DICOTS
There is about 250 THOUSAND SPECIES of FLOWERING PLANTS in the WORLD
Based on the number of COTYLEDON the flowering plant possesses. Cotyledon is defined as: An embryonic leaf in seed-bearing plants. These are the FIRST LEAVES to appear FROM a GERMINATED SEED
DICOTS
Examples: POTATOES, BEANS, PEAS, APPLE TREES
BROAD LEAF
75% OF ALL FLOWERING PLANTS ARE DICOTS
COTYLEDON = TWO COTYLEDONS IN THE SEED
STEM has VASCULAR BUNDLES AT THE EDGES
SINGLE THICK ROOT with LATERAL BRANCHES (Ex. TAPROOT)
Are NET VEINED
Have PETALS in MULTIPLES of FOUR or FIVE
MONOCOTS
Examples: GRASSES, ONION, CORN, WHEAT, RICE
LONG NARROW LEAF
23% OF ALL FLOWERING PLANTS ARE MONOCOTS
COTYLEDON = ONE COTYLEDON IN THE SEED
STEM has VASCULAR BUNDLES SPREAD ALL AROUND
FIBROUS SPREADING ROOTS
Have PARALLEL VEINS
Have PETALS in MULIPLES of THREE (Ex. LILY)
Plants have EVOLVED in order to SURVIVE different ENVIRONMENTS
Oxygen is then used by the vast majority of organisms to release the energy stored in sugars
EXAMPLES: CORN, WHEAT, CANOLA AND POTATOES
OCCURS ONLY WHEN WE DON'T HAVE ENOUGH CARBON DIOXIDE.
OXYGEN CAN JUMP IN THE CALVIN CYCLE USING RuBisCo CAN FORM ANOTHER CHEMICAL > WHICH DOES NOT DO ANYTHING
RESULTING IN A REDUCTION OF C3 PLANTS
PHOTORESPIRATION IS BAD
There is no benefit and the plants will LOSE based on OXYGEN entering The Calvin Cycle
Example: A plant has a STOMATA and when a plant OPENS UP the CARBON DIOXIDE diffuses in. If a plant was CLOSED, it would NOT RECEIVE CARBON DIOXIDE.
PLANTS CLOSE when it is REALLY HOT, TO PREVENT FROM LOSING WATER (as through TRANSPIRATION you are constantly LOSING WATER).
CLOSE UP STOMATA > You can't get CARBON DIOXIDE in resulting in PHOTORESPIRATION
OPEN UP STOMATA > You can LOSE WATER and shrivel up.
EVOLUTIONARY SOLUTIONS
Example: C4 PLANTS (like Corn)
SOLUTION: Take the CARBON DIOXIDE in and use ENZYEMES to MAKE A 4 CARBON MOLECULE out of it.
Will move to cells inside the leaf called THE BUNDLE SHEATH CELLS and then introduce CARBON DIOXIDE using THE CALVIN CYCLE.
Example: CAM PLANTS (like a Jade or Pineapple)
SOLUTION: They only open up their Stomata at NIGHT
During DAYTIME they can CLOSE the STOMATA to AVOID LOSING WATER and take that CARBON DIOXIDE out of the MALIC ACID and use it in THE CALVIN CYCLE
At NIGHT the CARBON DIOXIDE will come IN and CREATE MALIC ACID out of it, and STORE IT in the VACUOLES INSIDE THE CELL
Chlorophyll A and Chlorophyll B absorb a lot of Blue and Red light, but they do not absorb GREEN.
CHLOROPHYLL REFLECTS THE GREEN LIGHT
STROMA - THE OUTSIDE
LUMEN - THE INSIDE
LIGHT REACTION
In the THYLAKOID MEMBRANE - LIGHT comes IN, WATER comes IN
PHOTOSYSTEM II > PROTEINS with CHLOROPHYLL on the INSIDE of it
LIGHT is used to POWER THE MOVEMENT of AN ELECTRON through an Electron Transport Channel.
ELECTRONS will travel through PROTEINS, CARRIER PROTEINS and eventually go to NADPH (one of the products of the LIGHT DEPENDENT REACTION
EQUATION = 6H2O + 6CO2 + LIGHT > C6H12O6 + 6O2
WATER and LIGHT enter the MEMBRANCE and produce OXYGEN (a waste product) and NADPH and ADP are produced which is the ENERGY
WATER will be SPLIT right AWAY and the OXYGEN DIFFUSES OUT OF THE CELL (into the atmosphere as the Oxygen we breathe)
PROTONS remain (Hydrogen IONS, which are Atoms that have lost their ELECTRONS).
As the ELECTRON moves through the Electron Transport Channel) POWERED BY LIGHT. Every time it goes through a PROTEIN, it is pumping PROTONS to the INSIDE
PROTONS have a POSITIVE CHARGE so you are BUILDING UP A POSITIVE CHARGE ON THE INSIDE
The PROTONS MOVE OUT through a PROTEIN called ATP SYNTHASE . Every time a PROTON GOES OUT we make another ATP
They are now sitting in the STROMA and ready to move on to the CALVIN CYCLE.
ENERGY then TRANSFERS to the CALVIN CYCLE where CARBON DIOXIDE comes IN and GLUCOSE comes OUT
ATP AND NADPH are providing ENERGY to The Calvin Cycle
AN ENZYME known as RuBisCo will attach RUBP (5 CARBON MOLECULES) to CARBON DIOXIDE (1 CARBON MOLECULE) which immediately BREAKS into 3 CARBON MOLECULES and gets energy from ATM AND NADPH and forms the chemical G3P (Becoming GLUCOSE by SYNTHESIZING)
Taking Carbon and FIXING IT (making it usable)
Some of the G3P is released, but some is RECYCLED AGAIN to make more of the G3P
Without ATP or NADPH or CARBON, the process would SHUT DOWN.
SYNTHESIS - meaning Calvin Cycle (TO MAKE)
PHOTO - meaning light reaction (LIGHT)
A plant is taking WATER in through it's ROOTS and CARBON DIOXIDE through it's LEAVES + LIGHT = TURNING INTO GLUCOSE (the food) AND OXYGEN (the oxygen to breathe)
The plants create GLUCOSE (sugar) so they can break it down using CELLULAR RESPIRATION as well as the structure (cellulose, and cell wall)
FILLED WITH AQUEOUS FLUID
STROMA
THE SITE OF THE CALVIN CYCLE
THE SITE OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS IS THE CHLOROPLASTS
THYLAKOID MEMBRANE
LOCATION WHERE THE LIGHT REACTION WILL TAKE PLACE
A STACK OF THYLAKOIDS IS CALLED A GRANUM
A lecture given by Ranga Myneni of Boston University in which he presented an ingenious analysis of data from satellites. This proved that much of the vegetated area of the planet was getting greener, and only a little bit was getting browner.
The climate change lobby is keen to ensure that if you hear about it at all, you hear that it is a minor thing, dwarfed by the dangers of global warming.
The potentially most harmful outcome of rising atmospheric CO on vegetation: climate change itself
Negative consequences such as drought and heat stress would likely overwhelm any direct benefits that rising CO might offer plant life.
“The more CO you have, the less and less benefit you get.”
And while rising carbon dioxide might seem like a boon for agriculture, Moore also emphasizes any potential positive effects cannot be considered in isolation, and will likely be outweighed by many drawbacks. “
“Even with the benefit of CO fertilization, when you start getting up to 1 to 2 degrees of warming, you see negative effects,”
There are a lot of different pathways by which temperature can negatively affect crop yield: soil moisture deficit [or] heat directly damaging the plants and interfering with their reproductive process.”
Increased CO also benefits weeds that compete with farm plants.
Rising CO ’s effect on crops could also harm human health. “We know unequivocally that when you grow food at elevated CO levels in fields, it becomes less nutritious,”
Atmospheric CO levels predicted for mid-century—around 550 parts per million—could make food crops lose enough of those key nutrients to cause a protein deficiency in an estimated 150 million people and a zinc deficit in an additional 150 million to 200 million.
A total of 1.4 billion women of child-bearing age and young children who live in countries with a high prevalence of anemia would lose more than 3.8 percent of their dietary iron at such CO levels
Some assert rising CO levels benefit plants, so global warming is not as bad as scientists proclaim
“A higher concentration of carbon dioxide in our atmosphere would aid photosynthesis, which in turn contributes to increased plant growth,”
“This correlates to a greater volume of food production and better quality food.”
“If you isolate a leaf [in a laboratory] and you increase the level of CO , photosynthesis will increase.
For most of the other plants humans eat—including wheat, rice and soybeans—“having higher CO will help them directly,”
Doubling CO from pre-industrial levels, she adds, does boost the productivity of crops like wheat by some 11.5 percent and of those such as corn by around 8.4 percent.
“the bottom line is, we know that rising CO reduces the concentration of critical nutrients around the world,” adding that these kinds of nutritional deficiencies are already significant public health threats, and will only worsen as CO levels go up. “The problem with [the skeptics’] argument is that it’s as if you can cherry-pick the CO fertilization effect from the overall effect of adding carbon dioxide to the atmosphere,”
A system of interlocking and interdependent food chains.
Greenhouse Effect: The trapping of the sun's warmth in Earth's lower atmosphere due to Greenhouse Gases such as Carbon Dioxide
CO2 is the raw material needed by green plants to produce glucose and oxygen through the process of Photosynthesis.
Photosynthesis: The process by which green plants and some other organisms use sunlight to synthesize food from carbon dioxide and water.
THERE IS A TWO PART NAME FOR EVERY SPECIES
ANCESTRY
THE MORE LEVELS THAT THE TWO ORGANISMS SHARE, THE MORE CLOSELY RELATED THEY ARE
TAXONOMIC LEVELS OR RANKS ARE BASED ON SHARED CHARACTERISTICS
EXAMPLE: HYDRA VULGARIS
VULGARIS = SPECIFIC EPITHEY (REFERS TO ONE SPECIES IN THE GENUS)
HYDRA = GENUS
NOMENCLATURE - SYSTEM OF NAMING
NOMIAL - REPRESENTING NAME
BI - REPRESENTING TWO
CREATED A SYSTEM BASED ON THE ORGANISM ITSELF
BIOLOGISTS USE EIGHT DIFFERENT TAXA TO DESCRIBE ALL LIVING THINGS
6 KINGDOM EXAMPLE
The most current taxonomic hierarchy uses the six kingdom system developed in the 1990s
Animalia
Most are multicellular
Heterotroph
Plantae
Have cell walls made of cellulose
For the most part are multicellular
They are AUTOTROPHS - even carnivorous plants as they still receive their glucose from sunlight energy
FUNGI
Yeasts
Molds
Truffles
Puffballs
Smuts
Mushrooms
Most have cell walls or Chitin
Are mostly multicellular, but they can be unicellular
They are HETEROTROPHS
Protista
Some have cell walls made of Cellulose and some have no cell wall
Most are UNICELULAR but they can be MULTICELLULAR
Includes Autotroph Protists and Heterotroph Protists
Is extremely diverse. There are protists that are animal-like and plant-like and also fungi-like.
ARCHAE
Formerly known as Archaebacteria but this term is often argued to be outdated due to recent DNA and structure evidence
EUBACTERIA
5 KINGDOM EXAMPLE
ANIMALIA
PLANTAE
FUNGIS
PROTISTA
MONERA
THE MOST GENERAL TAXONOMIC RANK OF ORGANISMS IN THE TREET DOMAIN SYSTEM OF TAXONOMY
EUKARYA
EUKARYOTES
DNA (IN NUCLEUS)
NUCLEUS
MEMBRANE BOUND ORGANELLES
PROKARYOTES
DNA
NO NUCLEUS
NO MEMBRANE BOUND ORGANELLES
ARCHAEA
METHANOGENS - WANT AN ENVIRONMENT WHERE THERE IS VERY LITTLE OXYGEN
HALOPHILES - WANT AN EXTREME SALT TEMPERATURE
THERMOPHILES - LIKE EXTREME TEMPERATURES
BACTERIA
HAS NO MEMBRANE BOUND ORGANELLES, NO NUCLEUS, DOES NOT INCLUDE DNA
EACH LEVEL OF THE HIERACHY IS CALLED A TAXON
SPECIES
GENUS
FAMILY
ORDER
CLASS
PHYLUM
KINGDOM
DOMAIN
THIS SYSTEM USES MORPHOLOGICAL ATTRIBUTES AND IS REFERRED TO AS LINNEAN BINOMIAL NOMENCLATURE
BINOMIAL NOMENCLATURE MEANS A TWO TERM NAMING SYSTEM
EVOLUTION
Some genes may code for traits that code for low reproductive fitness and may be selected against
Some genes can code for traits that result in high reproductive fitness
Over time these traits can result in adaptations
The gene frequencies in a population of living organisms can change over time due to mechanisms. Example: Natural Selection
A characteristic of life that appears over time
A self-sustaining system capable of Darwinian Evolution
RESPONSE TO STIMULI
PLANTS RESPONDING TO LIGHT IS A RESPONSE TO A STIMULUS
OFTEN CONSIDERED A CHARACTERISTIC OF LIFE
EXTERNAL STIMULI
Example: The body alerts you to any approaching danger or hazards.
INTERNAL STIMULI
Example: Hunger alerts many body systems for the need to eat
GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
GENETIC MATERIAL CONTAINS INSTRUCTIONS FOR THIS DEVELOPMENT AND GROWTH
LIVING ORGANISMS HAVE GENETIC MATERIAL TO CODE FOR DEVELOPMENT AND GROWTH
REPRODUCTION
MULTICELLULAR BACTERIA
SPERM AND EGG CELLS UNITING TO MAKE A FERTILIZED EGG (A ZYGOTE)
UNICELLULAR BACTERIA
CAN COPY DNA AND SPLIT INTO TWO ORGANISMS
METABOLISM
Chemical reactions that are happening in organisms are past metabolism
Example: Animals are HETEROTROPHS that need to eat, then digest in order to obtain Glucose.
Heterotroph: An organism unable to manufacture its own food.
Also breaks down Glucose in Cellular Respiration to make ATB energy.
Example: Plants are AUTOTROPHS that can capture light energy to make Glucose (PHOTOSYNTHESIS)
Autotroph: An organism capable of synthesizing its own nutrients from inorganic substances.
Breaks down Glucose in Cellular Respiration to make ATB energy.
To capture energy and to use energy for processes (including some that use Homeostasis)
HOMEOSTASIS
MAINTAINING A REGULATED BALANCE
Having a feedback system in place to maintain homeostasis
Maintaining a certain percentage of water concentration
Maintaining a certain temperature
Example: Enzymes need a certain pH range
Balancing the Acidic and Alkaline levels
CELL TO TISSUE TO ORGAN TO ORGAN SYSTEM
MULTICELLULAR (MULTIPLE CELLS)
UNICELLULAR (1 CELL)
A FURTHER ATTRIBUTE WOULD BE NICHE FEEDING STRATEGIES DESCRIBING THE ROLW AND POSITION THAT A SPECIES HAS IN ITS ENVIRONMENT
ANOTHER ATTRIBUTE WOULD BE MORPHOLOGY WHICH IS TTHE FORM AND STRUCTURE OF A LIVING THING
ANIMALS MAY HAVE SHARED ATTRIBUTES. AN EXAMPLE: WHERE THEY LIVE
An important step towards understanding life on Earth
Comparison of similarities and differences between organisms.
