Laurel Science Culminating

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Transport in Animals

luonut Pickerell Pickerell

How the Body Uses Drugs

luonut Piper Chan

Optics Optics is a branch of physics which studies the properties and behavior of light. Furthermore, we talked about the characteristics of various mirrors, lenses, and how we can predict the characteristics of an image will look us

luonut Ragubavan Sathurtheha

Chemical Nomenclature

luonut Nandni Dabhi

Wash your hands before leaving

Dilute acid or base spills

No eating

Report any faulty equipment to the teacher

Rinse if a chemical comes in contact with your eyes or skin

Aim test tube mouths away from people

Safety goggles must be worn at all times during experiments

Begin experiment only when you are instructed to

Use a fume hood when instructed to do so

Keep work area clean

Know where all safety equipment is and how to use it

Do not mix concentrated acids or bases

Clean up all chemicals after activity

Do not return unused chemicals to bottles

Report any accident to the teacher

Be careful when handling hot objects

Follow teacher's instruction thoroughly

Do not taste any substance

No loose hair or clothing

Contact lenses should not be worn

Read each activity thoroughly before completing, if you do not know how to do something consult with teacher

No unauthorized experiments

Scientific Method

Question

Ask a question about something that interests you It must be simple, specific, and do-able, -comparing 2 things

Example: Does the amount of exercise affect the heart rate? Does eating while driving affect your driving skills?

Hypothesis

Format If_____ Then_____

An educated guess about what you think will happen Does not need to be correct

Example: If you exercise then your heart rate will increase If I eat while I drive then my driving skills will become better

Variables

Example: Does the amount of caffeine ingested affect a person's heart rate? Hypothesis: If a person ingests more than 5MG of caffeine, then the heart rate will increase Independent Variable: The amount of caffeine Dependent Variable: The heart rate Controlled variable: Time of day, watch, person measuring, age

Independent: What I change Dependent: What I observe Controlled: What I keep the same

Variables Types of Variables

Controlled Variable (CV)

All the other things are kept the same

Dependent Variable (DV)

The variable that you measure-The effect

Independent Variable (IV)

The Variable that you change-The cause

Procedure

Step by step description of how the experiment is conducted

Avoid the use of "he" or "she" or "I" Number the steps 1 2 3 Can also use diagram of set-up

Observations

Make careful notes of everything you observe during the experiment Record data in graph, table or chart form

Steps of Inquiry

Question Hypothesis Variables Procedure Observations Discussion/Analysis Conclusion

Discussion/Analysis

Identify patterns or trends in your data Develop a possible explanation Answer any questions with the lab

Conclusion

State whether your results are supported, partially supported, or rejected your hypothesis

Suggest possible sources of error Suggest possible improvements

Safety

Two types of safety symbols

WHMIS

There are 8 WHMIS symbols

Each WHMIS symbol has a circle for its border

Workplace Hazardous Materials Information System Found on workplace products-mostly clearers

HHPS

Hazardous Household Product Symbol Found on household products-mostly cleaners

Hazardous Safety Symbols

Safety Symbols: Have been developed to warn users of the hazards associated with different products.

Hazardous Houshold Product Symbols

Caution: Yellow triangle Warning: Orange diamond Danger: Red Hexagon

Combining the type and level of hazards creates HHPS

Three levels: There are 3 levels of hazards, each more harmful than the previous

Four types: There are 4 different types of hazards

Poisonous, Explosive, Corrosive, Flammable

There are 12 HHPS representing different types and levels of hazard

Acids and Bases

The pH scale measures how acidic or basic a solution is

The strength of an acid or base may be measured on the pH scale. The scale runs from 0-14

Example: an acid that is a pH 5 is 10 times stronger than an acid of pH 6 etc.

Strong and Weak

Some acids and bases are much stronger (Have a high concentration of ions in solution than others)

Eg: Nitric acid is a strong acid; ammonia is a weak base

Examples of Bases

Ammonia NH3

Sodium Bicarbonate NaHCO3

Aluminum Hydroxide Al(OH)3

Calcium Hydroxide Ca(OH)2

Sodium hydroxide NaOH

Examples of Acids

Hydrochloric Acid (In your digestive system) HCL

Carbonic Acid (In soft drinks) H2CO3

Citric Acid (In citrus fruit) H3C6H5O7

Acetic Acid (in Vinegar) HC2H3O2

Water is neutral (7)

Anything above 7 is a base

The closer the pH is to 7 the weaker the base

Anything below 7 is an acid

The closer the pH is to 7, the weaker the acid

Indicators

It is possible to test the pH of a solution using indicators, eg: litmus paper

Red litmus paper turns blue in a base and remains red in neutral or acidic solutions

Blue litmus paper turns red in an acid and remains blue in neutral or alkaline solutions

Properties of Acids

Tastes sour Are corrosive (reacts with metals to produce hydrogen gas) Release hydrogen ions (H+) in solution

Naming Acids

(hydrogen + a single element) are called hydro__ic acids

Eg: H2S is Hydrosulphuric acid

Properties of Bases

Taste bitter Feels slippery Are corrosive (break down proteins) Release hydroxide ions (OH-) in solution

Rules for writing ionic formulas

Write symbols of two elements Write valence of each as superscripts Drop positive and negative signs Criss-cross the superscripts so they become subscripts Reduce when possible

Bonding

Covalent

Electrons are shared between non-metals

Most transition metals have multiple valences Roman numerals are used in the name of transition metal in the compound to show the valence on the cation (metal)

Neither takes a charge Do not criss-cross USE prefixes in name Name tells formula Cannot reduce

Binary Ionic

Ion= when an element has more protons than electrons or vice versa

Non-metal becomes a negative ion (anion) gains electrons from metal

Chlorine gains electron to fill valence shell [Cl]-

Metal in bond becomes a positive ion (cations) loses electrons to non-meta

Lithium loses valence electron and becomes [Li]+ Magnesium loses two valence and becomes [Mg]2+

Occurs between metal and non-metal

Coefficient

shows how may molecules there are of a particular chemical

EX: 3 H2O Means there are 3 water molecules

Subscript

shows how many atoms of an element are in a molecule

Ex: H2O 2 atoms of hydrogen (H) 1 atom of oxygen (O

Law Of Conservation of Mass

If an equation obeys the Law of Conservation it is balanced

In a chemical reaction, matter is neither created nor destroyed

In other words, the number and type of atoms going INTO a reaction must be the same as the number and type of atoms coming out.

Rules

Subscripts cannot be added, removed, or changed

Coefficients can only go in front of chemical formulas...NEVER in the middle of a formula

You can only change coefficients

Matter cannot be created or destroyed

Tips

Try balancing big things first, save free elements for last

There is no one way to do it properly.

If the same polyatomic ion appears on both side of the equation, it's usually okay to treat it as one unit

Chemical Equation

Parts of an equation

Reactant ---> product Reactants react to produce the product

Describes a chemical change.

Reactants and Products

Reactant

Written on the left side of equation

The chemical (s) you start with before the reactions.

Product

Right side of the equation

The new chemical (s) formed by the reaction

Diatomic Elements

Always found in pairs when alone as an element

H O F Br I N Cl

Balancing Chemical Equations

Combustion

Usually a mix of Oxygen, Carbon, Hydrogen, and energy (heat or light)

Example: CH4 + O2 ----> CO2 + H2O

Single Displacement

A + BC -----> B + AC (Elements switch partners to form new compounds {zinc bumps hydrogen out to form zinc chloride})

Example: 2HCl + Zn ---> ZnCl2 + H2

One element knocks another element out of a compound

Double Displacement

AD + BC ---> BD + AC (Compound swap partners)

Example: BaCl2 + Na2SO4 ---> BaSO4 + 2NaCl

Two compounds switch with each other

Decomposition

AB -----> A + B (Compound breaks to = two elements)

Example: 2H2O2 ----> 2H2O + O2

One substance breaks down into two or more substances

Synthesis

A + B ---> AB (element + element = compound)

Example: 2Na + Cl2 --> 2NaCl

Two or more chemicals bond together forming one new substance

Chemical Reactions

Neutralization

Addition of an acid or alkali (base) to a liquid to cause the pH of the liquid to move towards a neutral pH of 7

Base

Adds Hydroxyl ions OH- Sodium Hydroxide NaOH ---> Na+ + OH-

Acid + Base = H+ + OH- ---> H2O

HCl+ NaOH ---> H2O + NaCl + energy Acid + base ---> water + salt + heat NEUTRAL

Acid

Adds Hydrogen ions H+ Hydrochloric acid HCl ---> H+ + Cl-

Nomenclature

Naming/Prefixes

Mono Di Tri Tetra Penta Hexa Repta Octa Nona Deca

Valence Electrons

Electrons in the outermost shell

Group 1 has 1 valence E and group 2 has 2 valence E and so on

Valence electrons are determined by element group Groups are the vertical columns on the table

Florine has 7 valence electrons

Lewis Dot

Draw chemical symbol Determine valence electrons Skip middle (transition metals) when counting groups Draw valence electrons around symbol

Skip transition metals they have weird rules

Draw symbol and then the valence electron(s)

Bohr Diagram

Neutrons= atomic mass – # of Protons

Orbit 1- 2 Electrons Orbit 2- 8 Electrons Orbit 3- 8 Electrons

Protons and Neutrons go in the nucleus

Draw Nucleus Draw total number of electrons in correct orbit arrangement

A model of an atom with the nucleus at the center, and the electrons drawn around it on different energy levels or electron orbits

Renewable Energy

Geothermal

Biomass

Wind

Hydro

Tidal

Solar

How can we reduce climate change

Ban burning of carbon

Recycle, Reuse, Reduce

Not over farm

Ride a bike/walk instead of drive

Build up instead of out

Consequences of climate change

Rising oceans

Melting ice caps

Heat

Extreme cold

Climate refugees

Dying Crops

Extreme storms

Activities that contribute to climate change

Air pollution

radioactive waste

Plastic

Deforestation

Burning of fossil fuels

Climate change is the change of the Earth's or a regions weather patterns. (Extreme weather)

Cardiac

Makes up heart which pumps blood

Does not tire

Branching

Found only in heart

attaches to other cardiac muscle cells

Skeletal

quick to respond, quick to tire

Moment is main function

Non-branching

Long muscle fibres

attached to bones by tendons

Striped

Triceps, Biceps, Quadriceps

Smooth

Contracts hollow organs

Controlled by central nervous system and hormones

Lining of digestive, urianary, and reproductive systems

Slower to respond slower to tire

Not striped

Why We Breathe

Get oxygen to cells

Remove CO2 from cells.

Air Pathway

Digestive

Rectum

Muscular tube

Holding area

Small Intestine

Pancreatic fluids Amylase Lipase (breaks down fat) Pepsin Sodium bicarbonate Other enzymes

Bile added

Nutrient absorption

Chemical digestion

Large Intestine

Production of vitamin K and biotin by bacteria

Reabsorption of water into the body

What are nutrients?

Glucose, starch

Fatty acids + glycerol, fats

Amino acids, proteins

Stomach

Now called chyme

Food stays for 4-5 hours

Lined with mucus

Gastric Fluids Water Mucin Pepsin (breaks down protein) HCL

Physical and Chemical digestion

Epiglottis

Covers passage to trachea

Esophagus

Moves food to stomach by peristalsis

No digestive occurs

Bolus

Flexible, muscular tube

Mouth

Saliva –amylase (breaks down starch)

Teeth and tongue

Physical and chemical breakdown

Stages of Digestion

Elimination- Feces held in rectum until ready

Absorption- Small intestine for nutrients, large intestine for water

Digestion- Mechanical (mouth and stomach) Chemical (mouth stomach small intestine)

Ingestion- Mouth

Respiratory

Respiratory Epithelial Cells

Helps move mucus and filter foreign particles

Produce Mucus Have Cilia

Mouth/Nose Larynx Trachea Left/right Bronchus Bronchioles Alveoli

Breathing

Exhale Ribs contract Diaphragm dome-snapped (pushes up) muscles relax

Inhale Ribs expand Diaphragm flattens muscles contract

Gas Exchange

Occurs at the alveoli

Carbon Dioxide leaves the blood by DIFFUSION

Oxygen enters the bloodstream in the lungs by DIFFUSION

Epiglottis covers esophagus when you swallow to prevent food from going down throat

Muscular

Circulatory

Heart

Has valves and veins

Has 4 chambers

Three Main Features

Vessels- where blood flows through

Pump- pumps the fluid through vessels

Fluids- transports materials (blood)

Blood Vessels

Capillaries: Allow exchange of nutrients, wastes, and gasses.

Veins: Carry blood to heart

Arteries: Carry blood away from heart

Mitosis

Prophase

Spindle fibers being to appear

Nuclear membrane disappears

Chromatin condenses into chromosomes

Metaphase

Spindle fibers attach to the centromere

Chromosomes migrate to the middle of the cell (equator)

Anaphase

Cleavage furrow starts to form in animal cell and a cell plates forms in plant cells

Chromosomes are pulled apart "away" from sister chromatid

Interphase

Consists of 3 part

Resting and normal cellular function

Cells spend most of its life in this phase

Telophase

Cleavage furrow/cell plate closes off to create two identical sister cells

Cytoplasm and organelles duplicate in a process called cytokinesis

Cells

Plant Cells

Square shaped

Cell Membrane

Regulates what enters and leaves the cell

Nucleolus

Makes RNA and Ribosomes

Cell Wall

Found in plant cells

Provides protection to cell

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

Helps move lipids and steroids

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

Folds proteins to correct shapes

Nuclear Membrane

Separates nucleus contents from rest of cell

Nucleus

Stores cell DNA and controls cell

Animal Cells

Round

Lysosomes

contains digestive enzymes

Golgi Apparatus

processes proteins

Ribosomes

Make proteins, crucial to cell devision

Cytoplasm

Gives cell its shape. Keeps organelles in place

Chloroplast

Found in plants

Coverts light energy into sugars

Mitochondria

Cellular Resperation

Breaks down nutrients and turns it into energy

Vacuole

Largest organelle in plant cells

Holds Materials and waste.

Lenses

Concave

Often called a diverging lens because when surrounded by material with a lower index of refraction, rays passing through it spread out

Thinner in the middle than at the edges

A lens is a piece of transparent material, such as glass or plastic, that is used to focus light and form an image

Convex

Often called a converging lens because when surrounded by material with a lower index of refraction, it refracts parallel light rays so that the rays meet at a point

Is thicker at the center than at the edges

Index of Refraction

Index of refraction = Speed of light in space Speed of light in media

Cannot be less than 1.00 Air=1.00 Glass=1.5 Water= 1.33

As light travels from one medium to another, the speed of light changes and the light bends accordingly.

You will have no trouble remembering this if you think about it in the right way: a real image has to be where the light is, which means in front of a mirror, or behind a lens.) Virtual images are formed by diverging lenses or by placing an object inside the focal length of a converging lens.

Optical Images

Type: Real or Virtual

Size: Bigger smaller, or same size as object

Orientation: Vertical (Upright or inverted) Lateral (Left to right)

Location: Behind or in front of the mirror

An image is the representation of an object formed by the interaction of light rays.

Diagrams

Referred to as Ray Diagrams

A beam is a 'bundle' of light rays

A ray is a single path followed by light

Laws

The incident ray, reflected ray, and normal all lie on the same plane

The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection

Plane Mirrors

Characteristics

Type: Virtual

Size: Same size object

Orientation: Image is upright, and laterally inverted

Location: Behind the mirror the same distance from the mirror as the object

Light Travels

In a straight line

This is known as Law of Rectilinear Propagatio

Reflections

Diffuse Reflections

Walls floors ceilings scatter light in all directions making them visible

Most objects are made of rough surfaces (and therefore scatter light); if this did not happen, indoor lighting would not be effective

They still obey the laws of reflection (Angle of incidence= angle of reflection)

Something that is flat will reflect nicely, something that is not flat will reflected not so nicely. (random like a broken mirror)

Because of the uneven surface, the light rays are scattered in many directions (diffused).

Many surfaces appear smooth, but when viewed under a microscope they are not.

Reflection of Light

Regular Reflection: of light from smooth shiny surfaces

Speed of Light

Types of Curved Mirrors

Convex Mirror

Behind Mirror Upright Smaller Virtual

All images will be formed at the same place

Converging mirrors

A mirror whose reflecting surface curves inward

Concave Mirror

Diverging mirror

A mirror whose reflecting surface curves outward

Refraction

You can only have total internal reflection going from a high index of refraction to a low index of refraction

Snell's Law: The Law of Refraction

Index of refraction of the media in which the angle of refraction is

Index of refraction of the media in which the angle of incidence is

n1 sin θI = n2 sinθR

Curved Mirrors

Converge

To meet at a common point

Vertex

The point where the P.A. meets the mirror

Rules for the construction of ray diagrams

Hint: If the reflected rays of diverge (reflect AWAY from each other) Trace the back behind the mirror to find a virtual image.

Rays striking V follow the laws of reflection (angle of incidence = angle of reflection)

Rays passing through C are reflected back along the same path

Rays passing through F are reflected parallel to the P.A.

Parallel rays are reflected through F

Focal Length (f)

The distance from the focal point to vertex

Focal Point (F)

Is halfway between the vertex and the centre of curvature. When parallel light rays are shone along the P.A., the reflected rays converge and cross at the focal point.

Principle Axis (P.A.)

The line through C that passes through the midpoint of the mirror (normal to the centre of the mirror

Centre of Curvature

Centre of a sphere whose surface has been used as a mirror C=2f

Eye Anatomy

Subtopic

Cones

Active in high light levels. Able to see colour

Rods

Responsible for the vision at low light

Pupil

The hole in the middle of the iris where light enters the eye

Cornea

Clear area of sclera that helps bend light into the retina

Iris

Coloured sheet of muscle which controls the amount of light that enters the eye

Hyperopia

Lens type to fix: Converging

Far-sightedness

Myopia

Lens type to fix: Diverging

Near-sightedness

Vitreous Humour

Jelly-like fluid which helps keep the shape of the eyeball.

Optic Nerve

Responsible for sending information to the brain to be processed

Fovea

Small area of the retina which contains only cones

Retina

Layer of light sensitive cells which send impulses to the optic nerve

Sclera

White, tough outer part of the eye that provides protection

Lens

Clear disc which focuses the light onto the retina

Tribolumiscence

Produced by scratching or rubbing certain crystals

Fluorescence

An object absorbs UV light & immediately releases visible light

Production of visible light

UV hits fluorescent coating

Electric current causes Hg to emit UV

Fluorescent dyes in detergent, highlighter

Electrical Discharge

Production of light when electricity passes through a gas

Lightning, Neon signs

Gas atoms get excited and give off light

Incandescence

Production of light by heating to high temperatures

Gas Stove, Torch

Phosphorescence

Substances that contain "phosphors" that absorb light

Glow in the dark stuff

Light is emitted slowly

Bioluminescence

Light from living organisms

Fireflies

Chemiluminescence

Light from chemical reactions

Glow Sticks

Types of Light

Light

White Light

White light hits a prism at an angle the light disperses into its different wave lengths

Made up of a continuous sequence of colours

Light is a type of radiation, or electromagnetic energy that travels in waves

Sources of Light

Non-luminous objects: Reflect light

Luminous sources: Produce light

Science

Scientific Inquiry and Investigation

Optics

Chemistry

Climate Change

Biology